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Education   Library 


V. 


GRAMMAR-SCHOOL 


GEOGRAPHY 


Physical^  Political^  and  Commercial 


BY 


WILLIAM     SWINTON 


GOLD-MEDALIST  FOR  GEOGRAPHY,  PARIS  EXPOSITION,  1878,  AND  AUTHOR  OF  SWINTON'S  GEOGRAPHICAL  SERIES,  WORD-BOOK 

SERIES,  OUTLINES  OF  THE  WORLD'S  HISTORY,  ETC. 


COPYRIGHT,  1880,  BY 

IVISON,    BLAKEMAN,    TAYLOR,    AND     COMPANY,      • 
NEW     YORK    AND     CHICAGO. 


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PREFACE. 


THIS  "Grammar-School  Geography"  is  intended  as  the 
higher  book  of  a  two-book  series,  in  which  the  author's 
"  Introductory  Geography "  is  designed  to  serve  as  the  ele- 
mentary manual. 

In  the  "Complete  Course  in  Geography"  (first  published 
in  1875)  a  leading  aim  of  the  author  was  to  realize  what  he 
deemed  a  great  desideratum  in  the  treatment  of  the  geography 
of  the  United  States.  This  want,  and  his  own  plan  for  filling 
it,  he  indicated  in  the  following  sentences  in  the  Preface  to  the 
work  just  named  :  — 

"  The  need  of  a  much  more  minute  and  detailed  study  of  local  geography 
than  is  possible  with  existing  text-books  is  becoming  deeply  felt.  The 
dozen  or  the  score  of  vague,  because  generalized  and  colorless,  lines  usually 
devoted  to  great  states  like  New  York  or  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  or  Illinois,  are 
poorly  fitted  to  furnish  a  pupil  with  such  equipment  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge as  is  necessary  either  for  practical  use  or  ordinary  intelligence.  In  the 
present  book  an  effort  is  made  to  meet  the  desideratum  of  fullness  on  each 
state,  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the  danger  of  overtasking  the  pupil  by 
the  device  of  a  double  text  on  the  United  States.  There  is  in  the  case  of 
each  state,  i.  A  general  text,  which  comes  first,  and  is  printed  in  the  larger 
type:  this  is  to  be  studied  hy  a// classes.  2.  A  special  geography  of  each 
state,  which  is  designed  for  use  only  by  classes  in  the  state  under  review.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  elastic  arrangement  of  a  general  and  a  special  text  will 
meet  all  requirements." 

The  plan  received  the  emphatic  approval  of  teachers,  and 
this  approval  has  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  "  Complete 
Course  "  to  an  extent  unsurpassed,  if  not  unparalleled,  in  the 
history  of  geographical  publication.  It  is,  indeed,  the  very  full- 
ness of  acceptance  accorded  the  theory  of  an  enlarged  text  of 
the  states  that  has  prompted  the  publication  of  the  present 
work ;  for  it  soon  became  manifest  that  a  still  more  liberal 
allowance  of  special  state  geography  than  even  that  given  in 
the  volume  just  named  was  called  for  by  many  teachers.  In 
order  to  supply  this  demand,  the  author  has  in  this  book  adopted 
the  plan  of  confining  to  a  general  treatment  the  text  of  the 
several  states,  supplementing  this  in  special  editions  by  the 
detailed  geography  of  individual  states  or  sections.  To  those 
who  prefer  this  arrangement  the  "  Grammar-School  Geography" 
will  commend  itself,  while  teachers  who  desire  a  somewhat  full 


exposition  of  the  geography  of  all  the  states  will  find  their  wish 
met  in  the  "  Complete  Course."  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
two  are  independent  books,  differing  in  structure  because  edu- 
cationists differ  in  taste. 

To  this  explanation  of  the  relation  of  the  present  work  to 
the  other  works  of  the  geographical  series  by  the  same  author 
may  now  be  added  a  few  words  as  to  the  general  plan  of  the 
book. 

The  "Grammar-School  Geography"  aims  to  strike  a  just 
balance  between  conflicting  theories  of  geographical  teaching, 
and  to  embody  what  is  best  in  the  modern  methods.  There 
are  those  who  regard  Physical  Geography  as  the  all  in  all,  and 
those  who  regard  Political  Geography  as  the  all  in  all.  The 
author  has  sought  to  avoid  the  one-sidedness  of  each.  Physi- 
cal and  so-called  "  Political  "  Geography  are  treated  as  insepar- 
able, as  one  subject,  and  the  two  so  blended  that  the  physical 
aspects  and  attributes  of  the  globe  and  man's  doings  on  its 
surface  present  themselves  to  the  pupil's  mind,  not  as  isolated 
phenomena,  but  as  a  connected  whole. 

For  the  study  of  the  Physical  Geography  of  the  several  grand 
divisions  provision  has  been  made  in  special  maps,  unencum- 
bered by  the  names  of  countries  or  places,  but  presenting  in 
clear  view  the  natural  features  of  the  continent,  its  vegetable 
products,  its  characteristic  animals,  and  its  mineral  resources. 
The  physical  maps  are  further  supplemented  by  relief  views, 
which  are  of  striking  value  in  presenting  to  the  feye  the  great 
surface-features  of  the  land  masses.  A  series  of  systematic 
questions  and  exercises  faces  each  of  the  physical  maps.  The 
Physical  Geography,  though  necessarily  brief,  presents  a  con- 
densed view  of  the  contour,  surface,  drainage,  vegetation,  ani- 
mals, and  resources  of  each  of  the  grand  divisions.  It  is  freed 
from  needless  technicalities,  and  fitted  for  easy  comprehension 
by  pupils  in  the  grades  for  which  this  book  is  designed. 

The  Political  Geography,  or  descriptive  text  of  countries, 
follows  the  Physical  Geography  of  the  grand  divisions.  The 
aim  here  has  been  to  make  a  compact  text,  in  which  the  major 
factors  of  a  nation's  civilization— -its  resources,  industries,  and 
commerce  —  shall   be  brought  prominently  to  view ;   and,  for 


M,!29Qp02 


IV 


PREFACE. 


the  fuller  treatment  of  these,  space  is  gained  by  the  omission, 
first,  of  all  merely  topographical  matter  (a  knowledge  of  which 
is  gained  from  the  study  of  the  map),  and,  secondly,  by  the 
complete  ignoring  of  the  conventional  jejune  accounts  of  eth- 
nological characteristics,  manners,  customs,  religions,  &c.  The 
descriptive  text  is  accompanied  by  political  maps  the  study  of 
which  is  secured  by  full  and  varied  exercises.  Where  the 
importance  of  particular  countries  demands  it,  special  maps  are 
given.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  Europe,  in  addition  to  the  general 
physical  and  political  maps,  special  maps  are  added  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  France  and  Switzerland,  the  German  Em- 
pire, Belgium  and  the  Netherlands,  Austro-Hungary,  and  the 
Turkish  Empire.  So,  in  the  case  of  Africa,  the  general  physi- 
cal and  political  map  is  supplemented  by  a  special  map  of 
Equatorial  Africa,  showing  the  latest  results  of  discovery  and 
exploration,  thus  giving  us  a  chart  well  studded  with  names  of 
peoples  and  cities,  where,  till  lately,  in  the  words  of  Swift, 
geographers 

"O'er  unhabitable  downs 
Place  elephants  for  want  of  towns." 

The  treatment  of  commercial  and  industrial  geography  is, 
perhaps,  the  feature  which  most  markedly  distinguishes  this 
volume  from  the  old-style  text-books.  A  knowledge  of  these 
important  but  neglected  subjects  is  secured,  first  by  a  careful 
statement  of  the  industries  of  each  country  and  the  kind  of  pro- 
ductions it  sends  into  the  channels  of  trade,  and,  secondly,  by  a 
comprehensive  view  of  the  commerce  of  the  world  presented  in 
a  map  showing  the  one  hundred  principal  seaports,  the  articles 


shipped  from  each,  the  steamer  routes,  submarine  cables,  and 
international  lines  of  telegraphic  communication.  Ample  exer- 
cises, topically  arranged,  accompany  the  map.  In  like  manner, 
the  domestic  and  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  is 
illustrated  by  a  map  showing  the  areas  of  the  great  staples,  and 
productive  resources,  —  the  regions  of  corn,  wheat,  sugar,  to- 
bacco, stock-raising,  coal,  iron,  and  other  mineral  deposits,  the 
lines  of  railroad  that  transport  these  articles  to  the  seaboard, 
and  the  ports  from  which' they  are  shipped. 

Great  care  has  been  taken,  in  the  construction  of  this  work, 
to  make  it  in  the  best  sense  a  Uxt-hook.  Among  the  features 
which  it  is  hoped  teachers  will  notice  with  satisfaction  are  the 
following  two  :  i.  The  paragraphs  are  cast  in  a  form  convenient 
both  for  memoridng  and  recitation.  By  introducing  each  para- 
graph with  bold  type,  a  suitable  question  spontaneously  frames 
itself  in  the  minds  of  pupil  and  teacher,  thus  obviating  the  old 
and  inconvenient  form  of  questions  far  removed  from  the  text. 
2.  The  method  of  study  pursued  by  the  best  teachers  being 
largely  topical,  ample  provision  has  been  made  to  further  this 
plan,  by  numerous  carefully  constructed  topical  synopses,  re- 
views, tables,  and  questions. 

A  high  standard  of  excellence  in  the  artistic,  cartographic, 
and  mechanical  execution  of  geographical  te.xt-books  has  re- 
cently been  established.  To  this  fact  due  regard  has  been  had 
by  the  publishers;  and  the  merits  of  the  "Grammar-School 
Geography  "  in  the  particulars  just  named  will  be  sufficiently 
evident  to  those  who  examine  it. 


WILLIAM   SWINTON. 


New  York,  April,  1880. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

PREFACE iii 

INTRODUCTION i 

DEFiNmoNS  IN  Mathematical  Geography       ....  2 

I.    Shape,  Size,  and  Motions  of  the  Earth.    Direction  2 

II.     Geographical  Circles 3 

III.  Latitude  and  Lxdngitude.    Zones        ...  3 

IV.  Means  of  Geographical  Study        ....  4 
Definitions  in  Physical  Geography          ....  6 

I.     Divisions  of  the  Land 6 

II.     Divisions  of  the  Water 7 

III.  Climate 9 

IV.  Plants  and  Animals 9 

V.     Races  of  Men 10 

Definitions  in  PoLrncAL  Geography         .        .        .        .  11 

I.    States  of  Socieiy 11 

II.  '  Government 11 

Etymology  of  Terms  used  in  Geography    .        .        .        .11 

Comparative  Geography  of  the  World  .        .        .        .  13 

PHYSICAL  NORTH   AMERICA 15 

POLITICAL   NORTH   AMERICA 19 

Danish  America 19 

Dominion  of  Canada,  with  Newfoundland      .        .         .   "  21 

Mexico 23 

Central  America .  23 

West  Indif^ 23 

PHYSICAL  UNITED   STATES 25 

POLITICAL  UNITED   STATES 27 

Eastern  States,  or  New  England 30 

Middle  States 34 

Southern  States  :   Eastern  Division        ....  38 

Southern  States  :   Western  Division   .....  42 

Central  States  :    Eastern  Division 46 

Central  States  :   Western  Division 50 

Pacific  States  and  Territories        ...  .54 

Tables  of  Population  and  Resources  .        .        .        .        -59 

PHYSICAL  SOUTH   AMERICA 63 

POLITICAL  SOUTH   AMERICA 67 

PHYSICAL  EUROPE 71 

POLITICAL   EUROPE 75 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 76 


PAGI 

France  and  Switzerland 78 

German  Empire,  Netherlands,  and  Belgium     .  .80 

Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy 82 

Russia  in  Europe 83 

Sweden  and  Norway 83 

Denmark 83 

Spain 83 

Portugal 84 

Italy 84 

Greece 84 

European  Turkey .85 

Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro  .        .        .        ...        85 

PHYSICAL  ASIA 87 

POLITICAL  ASIA 91 

Asutic  Russia 9a 

Chinese  Empire 92 

Japan 92 

Indo-China 93 

British  India 93 

Afghanistan  and  BELOOcrasTAN         .        .        .        .        .         94 

Persia 94 

Arabia 94 

Asiatic  Turkey 95 

Malay  Archipelago 95 

AFRICA 97 

Barbary  States        ........         99 

EovFr  and  Abyssinia 100 

The  Sahara 100 

Central  Africa loi 

Soudan 102 

Republics  and  Colonies 102 

Oceanica '  .        .       102 

Australasia 104 

Melanesia 105 

Polynesia      .        .  ■       ,. 105 

ARCTIC   REGIONS 106 

COMMERCE   OF  THE  WORLD no 

MAP  DRAWING m 

TABLES  OF   POPULATION,  ETC 116 

PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY "7 


MAPS. 


rAGB 

THE   HEMISPHERES .         .         .      ' 12 

PHYSICAL  NORTH   AMERICA 14 

POLITICAL   NORTH   AMERICA 18 

DOMINION   OF   CANADA 20 

MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND   WEST   INDIES 22 

PHYSICAL  UNITED   STATES 24 

POLITICAL  UNITED   STATES 28-29 

NEW   ENGLAND 31 

MIDDLE   STATES 35 

SOUTHERN   STATES:    EASTERN    DIVISION 39 

SOUTHERN   STATES:    WESTERN    DIVISION 43 

CENTRAL  STATES:    EASTERN   DIVISION 47 

CENTRAL  STATES:    WESTERN    DIVISION 51 

PACIFIC   STATES  AND   TERRITORIES 55 

COMMERCIAL  UNITED   STATES '.         .  60-61 

PHYSICAL  SOUTH  AMERICA 63 

POLITICAL  SOUTH   AMERICA 66 

PHYSICAL   EUROPE 70 

POLITICAL   EUROPE 74 

GREAT   BRITAIN   AND    IRELAND • 77 

FRANCE   AND   SWITZERLAND 78 

GERMAN   EMPIRE,  NETHERLANDS,  AND   BELGIUM •      .         .        .        .  80 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   MONARCHY 82 

TURKISH    EMPIRE,  GREECE,  ETC 85 

PHYSICAL  ASIA 86 

POLITICAL  ASIA 90 

AFRICA 96 

CENTRAL  AFRICA loi 

OCEANICA 103 

ARCTIC   REGIONS 106 

COMMERCE   OF   THE   WORLD 108-109 

DRAWING  MAPS 114-116 


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-^3^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


GEOGRAPHY   AND    ITS   DIVISIONS. 

1.  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  of 
the  countries  into  which  it  is  divided,  and  of  the  people  that 
inhabit  them. 

2.  Its  Divisions.  —  The  earth  may  be  considered  in 
three  different  relations :  i.  In  its  relation  to  the  solar 
system ;  2.  In  its  relation  to  nature ;  3.  In  its  relation  to 
man. 

Hence  arise  three  divisions  of  geography, — Mathematical 
Geography,  Physical  Geography,  and  Political  Geography. 

3.  Mathematical  Geography  treats  of  the  earth  as  a 
planet,  —  its  form,   size,  and  motions ;    its  division  by  circles  : 


and    the    art    of    constructing    maps    with    the    aid    of    these 
circles. 

4.  Physical  Geography  treats  of  the  earth  in  its  natural 
divisions,  and  its  relations  to  the  physical  laws  by  which  it  is 
governed. 

5.  Political  Geography  treats  of  the  earth  as  divided  into 
countries,  and  of  the  condition  of  the  people  inhabiting  them. 

6.  Illustrations.  —  That  the  United  States  is  in  the  North 
Temperate  Zone  is  a  fact  of  Mathematical  Geography ;  that 
off  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  is  an  ocean  current 
called  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  modifies  our  climate,  is  a  fact  of 
Physical  Geography ;  that  the  United  States  is  a  republic  is  a 
fact  of  Political  Geography. 


DEFINITIONS   IN   MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


DEFINITIONS    IN     MATHEMATICAL     GEOGRAPHY. 


REFERENCE    TABLE    OF     GEOMETRICAL    TERMS. 


OMORAM  OF  MATHEMATICAL  FIGURES. 

7.  A  sphere  is  a  solid  bounded  by  a  surface  all  points  of  which  are 
equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the  center. 

8.  The  circumference  of  a  sphere  is  the  curved  line  encompassing  it 

9.  The  diameter  of  a  sphere  is  a  straight  line  passing  through  the 
center,  and  terminating  in  the  circumference. 

10.  The  axis  is  that  diameter  of  a  sphere  upon  which  it  rotates. 
Rotation  is  the  movement  of  a  body  upon  its  axis. 

Revolution  is  the  movement  of  a  body  or  point  around  another  body  or  point. 

11.  The  poles  are  the  points  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  at  the  extrem- 
ities of  its  axis. 

12.  A  plane  is  a  surface  upon  any  part  of  which  a  straight  line  may  be 
drawn. 

13.  A  circle  is  a  plane  bounded  by  a  curved  line  all  points  of  which  are 
equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the  center. 

14.  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  the  curved  line  which  bounds  it. 

Though  in  geometry  there  is  the  distinction  above  noted  between  a  circle  and  its 
circumference,  in  geography  the  term  "  circle  "  is  generally  used  as  synon)rmous 
with  "  circumference." 

15.  Circles  of  the  sphere  are  divided  into  great  circles  and  small  circles. 

16.  A  great  circle  is  one  that  divides  a  sphere  into  two  equal  parts. 

17.  A  small  circle  is  one  that  divides  a  sphere  into  two  unequal  parts. 

18.  Degrees.  —  Every  circle  (circumference),  whether  great  or  small,  is 
divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees,  and  marked  thus,  —  360°.  The 
^  part  of  a  degree  is  called  a  minute,  marked  thus, —  i'.  The  -^  part  of  a 
minute  is  called  a  second,  marked  thus, —  i". 


SHAPE,  SIZE,  AND   MOTIONS   OF  THE   EARTH.— DIRECTION. 
I.  SHAPE   OF   THE    EARTH. 

19.  The  shape  of   the  earth  is  nearly  that  of  a  sphere ;  in 
exact  terms,  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Spheroid  means  like  a  sphere ;  oblate  means  flattened  at  two  opposite 
sides ;  and  an  oblate  spheroid  contrasts  with  a  prolate  spheroid, 
which  is  a  sphere  extended  at  any  two  opposite  sides.  An  orange 
is  an  example  of  an  oblate  spheroid;  and' a  lemon,  of  a  prolate 
spheroid. 


II.  SIZE   OF   THE   EARTH. 

20.  The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  nearly  25,000  miles ; 
its  diameter  nearly  8,000  miles. 

I.  The  earth,  being  flattened  at  the  poles,  has  a  longest  and  a  shortest 

diameter,  and  consequently  a  greatest  circumference.      The   exact 

figures  are, — 
Longest  diameter  (equatorial)  .     7,925.65  miles.   1 

Shortest        "        (axial).     .     .     7,899.17       "       [  Difference  of  26.48  miles. 
Greatest  circumference  .     .     .  24,899  " 

I I.  The  surface  of  the  earth  contains  nearly  200,000,000  square  miles. 

III.  MOTIONS   OF  THE  EARTH. 

21.  The  earth  has  two  motions, — the  diurnal  and  the  annual 
motion. 

22.  The  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  is  its  daily  rotation  on 
its  axis  (Def.  10). 

The  direction  of  the  rotation  is  from  west  to  east,  causing 
the  sun  to  appear  to  rise  in  the  east,  and  set  in  the  west 

23.  The  principal  effect  of  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth 
is  the  alternation  of  day  and  night. 

24.  The  annual  motion  of  the  earth  is  its  revolution  around 
the  sun  in  a  period  of  nearly  365^  days. 

The  earth's  orbit  is  its  path  around  the  sun,  and  the  plane  of  its  orbit 
is  the  level  surface  included  within  the  orbit.  The  earth's  axis 
inclines  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  23J  degrees.  This  inclination  is 
the  same  in  every  part  of  the  orbit,  because  the  North  Pole  con- 
tinually points  toward  the  North  Star. 

25.  The  principal  effect  of  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth, 
in  connection  with  the  inclination  and  unvarying  direction  of 
the  earth's  axis,  is  the  change  of  seasons. 

IV.  POLES   AND   DIRECTION. 

26.  The  poles  of  the  earth  (Def.  11)  are  named  the  North 
Pole  and  the  South  Pole.  The  North  Pole  is  the  pole  nearest 
the  North  Star ;  the  South  Pole  is  the  opposite  extremity  of 
the  earth's  axis. 


THE  NORTH  STAR. 


^ 


The  Nortn  Star  is  a  bright  star  in  the  constellation  of  the  Lesser  Bear 
(Ursa  Minor).  Two  stars  called  the  Pointers,  in  the  constellation  of  Ursa 
Major,  point  very  nearly  to  this  star. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   CIRCLES.— LATITUDE   AND   LONGITUDE.  — ZONES. 


27.  Direction  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  named  with  refer- 
ence to  the  points  of  the  horizon,  or  circle  where  the  earth  and 
the  sky  seem  to  meet. 

North  is  that  point  of  the  horizon  towards  which  one's  shadow 
falls  at  noon.     South  is  the  opposite  point. 

Facing  the  north,  the  right  hand  is  towards  the  east,  the  left 
hand  towards  the  west. 

I.  The  cardinal  points  are  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  The  semi- 
cardinal  points  are  those  midway,  namely,  north-east,  south-east, 
south-west,  and  north-west. 
II.  The  compass  is  an  instrument  by  which  the  points  of  the  horizon  may 
be  exactly  ascertained.  It  consists  of  a  card,  representing  the  hori- 
zon, and  marking  the  cardinal  and  semi-cardinal  points.  Over  this, 
and  swinging  freely  on  a  pivot,  is  a  magnetic  needle,  which  has  the 
remarkable  property  of  pointing  nearly  to  the  north. 


n. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   CIRCLES. 

I.  KINDS    OF    CIRCLES. 

28.  Geographical  circles  are  lines  imagined  to  be  drawn  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth.     They  consist  of  great  circles  (Def. 

16)  and  small  circles  (Def.  17). 

29.  The  great  circles  are  the 
Equator  and  the  meridian  cir- 
cles. The  small  circles  are' the 
parallels. 

II.  EQUATOR  AND  MERIDIANS. 

30.  The  Equator  is  the  great 
circle  midway  between  the  poles. 
It  divides  the  earth  into  a 
Northern  and  a  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere. 

31.  Meridian  circles  are  great 
circles  crossing  the  Equator  at 
right    angles,    and    intersecting 

EQUATOR.  ^j.    jj^g    poles.      Each    meridian 

circle  divides  the  earth  into  an  Eastern  and  a  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. 

32.  A  Meridian  is  half  a  meridian  circle,  and  extends  from 

pole  to  pole. 

III.  PARALLELS. 

33.  Parallels  are  small 
circles  parallel  to  the 
Equator.  They  comprise 
the  tropics,  the  polar  cir- 
cles, and  the  parallels  of 
latitude. 

34.  The  tropics  are 
two  parallels,  each  23^° 
from  the  Equator.  The 
tropic  23^°  north  of 
the  Equator  is  called  the 

south   of  the   Equator  is 


MER  DIANS. 


23^ 


Tropic  of  Cancer  ;   the   tropic 
called  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

35.  The  polar  circles  are  two  parallels,  of  which  the  north- 
ern, 234°  from  the  North  Pole,  is  called  the  Arctic  Circle ;  and 
the  southern,  23^°  from  the  South  Pole,  the  Antarctic  Circle. 


III.  ;■"  ^,  ;   ;;:V'\;:-i\ 

LATITUDE   AND   LONGITUDE.— ZONES. 

I.  GEOGRAPHICAL    POSITION. 

36.  Geographical  position  is  determined  by  means  of  paral- 
lels and  meridians,  and  is  stated  in  terms  of  latitude  and  longi- 
tude. 

II.  LATITUDE. 

37.  Latitude  is  distance  north  or  south  from  the  Equator. 
It  is  represented  on  globes  and 
maps    by   parallels    of   latitude, 
and  is  reckoned  in  degrees. 

38.  Latitude  is  reckoned 
thus  :  North  latitude,  from  the 
Equator,  where  the  latitude  is 
zero,  to  the  North  Pole,  which 
is  in  90°  north  latitude  ;  south 
latitude,  from  the  Equator  to 
the  South  Pole,  which  is  in  90° 
south  latitude. 

The  length  of   every  degree  of 
latitude  is  69J  statute  miles.  parallels  of  latitude. 

III.  LONGITUDE. 

39.  Longitude   is  distance    east   or  west  from  some  chosen 
meridian,  called  the  prime  me- 
ridian.    It  is   measured   in   de- 
grees on  any  parallel  or  on  the 
Equator. 

Prime  Meridians.  —  The  meridi- 
"  an  of   the    British  Royal  Ob- 

servatory at  Greenwich,  near 
London,  Eng.,  is  the  prime 
meridian  generally  used.  The 
meridian  of  Washington  also 
is  used  in  our  country.  In 
this  book  the  numbers  at  the 
top  of  the  maps  indicate  lon- 
gitude counted  from  the  Green- 
wich meridian ;  and  those  at 
the  bottom,  longitude  counted  from  the  Washington  meridian. 

40.  Longitude  is  reckoned  from  the  prime  meridian,  where 
the  longitude  is  zero,  both  eastward  and  westward  half-way 
round  the  globe.  Thus  there  are  180°  of  east  longitude,  and 
180°  of  west  longitude. 

I.  The  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  Equator  is  69J  statute 
miles :  but,  as  the  meridians  gradually  approach  one  another  till 
they  meet  at  the  poles,  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  decreases 
proportionately,  and  at  the  poles  the  longitude  is  zero. 
II.  If  the  figures  or  degrees  marked  on  the  Equator  to  measure  longitude 
increase  from  left  to  right,  the  longitude  is  east ;  if  from  right  to  left, 
it  is  west. 

IV.  ZONES    OF    CLIMATE. 

41.  The  zones  of  climate  are  broad  belts  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face parallel  to  the  Equator,  and  bounded  by  the  tropics  and 
the  polar  circles. 

42.  The  zones  are  five,  —  one  Torrid,  two  Temperate,  and 
two  Frigid  Zones. 

43.  The  Torrid  Zone  extends  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  or  47°  =  about  3,250  miles. 


MERIDIANS   OF   LONGITUDE. 


4 


DEFINITIONS   IN   MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


THE  ZONES. 


The  Torrid  Zone  is  marked  by  great  and  uniform  heat,  with  two  sea- 
sons,—  the  rainy  and  the  dry  season.  The  days  and  nights  vary 
little  in  length. 

44.  The  Temperate  Zones  lie  between  the  tropics  and  the 
polar  circles,  —  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  between  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  and  the  Arctic  Circle  ;  and  the  South  Temperate  Zone, 
between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
Each  is  43°  (=  nearly  3,CXX)  miles)  wide. 

The  Temperate  Zones  are  marked  by  the  four  seasons,  with  hot  sum- 
mers and  cold  winters.  The  days  and  nights  vary  in  length  more 
than  in  the  Torrid  Zone. 

45.  The  Frigid  Zones  are  distinguished  as  the  North  Frigid 
Zone,  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  North  Pole  ;  and  the 
South  Frigid  Zone,  between  the  Antarctic  Circle  and  the  South 
Pole.     Each  extends  23^°  from  the  pole  as  its  center. 

The  Frigid  Zones  are  marked  by  a  long  and  intensely  cold  winter,  and 
a  short,  though  comparatively  warm,  summer.  The  days  lengthen 
towards  the  poles,  where  day  and  night  are  each  six  months  in 
length. 


IV. 


MEANS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDY. 

I.  GLOBES   AND   MAPS. 

46.  A  terrestrial  globe  is  a  sphere  representing  the  form  of 
the  earth,  the  geographical  circles,  and  the  outlines  of  the 
earth's  surface. 


II.  MAP  OF  THE   WORLD. 

48.  A  representation  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  on  a 
plane  is  generally  made  in  one  of  two  ways  :  — 

49.  First  Method.  —  By  the  hemisphere  map,  in  which 
the  sphere  of  the  earth  is  assumed  to  be  divided  into  an  East- 
ern and  a  Western  Hemisphere.  Each  of  these  is  represented 
by  a  circle,  within  which  the  geographical  lines  and  the  surface- 
outlines  are  drawn. 

I.  The  Eastern  Hemisphere  comprises  that  half  of  the  earth's  surface 
(180  degrees)  extending  from  the  20th  meridian  west  of  Greenwich 
eastward  to  i6o°  east  longitude.  The  Western  Hemisphere  com- 
prises that  half  of  the  earth's  surface  (180  degrees)  extending  from 
the  20th  meridian  west  of  Greenwich  westward  to  160°  east  longi- 
tude. 
II.  This  meridian  was  originally  chosen  by  geographers  as  the  line  of 
separation  between  the  two  hemispheres,  because  it  was  supposed 
to  pass  through  Ferro  (one  of  the  Canary  Islands),  the  most  western 
land  known  to  the  ancients.  The  permanent  convenience  of  the 
selection,  however,  is  that  it  permits  nearly  the  whole  of  <he  Eastern 
Continent  to  be  represented  in  the  map  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
and  the  whole  of  the  Western  Continent  in  that  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere. 

III.  It  will  be  observed,  (i)  that  the  parallels  do  not  seem  to  be  parallel  with 

one  another,  —  they  are  dra\vn  as  they  are,  in  order  to  represent  the 
rotundity  of  the  earth ;  (2)  that  the  meridians  are  drawn  from  top 
to  bottom  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  the  globular  form  of  the  earth, 
—  they  must  all,  however,  be  supposed  to  cross  the  Equator  at  right 
angles,  and  the  direction  of  the  meridians  indicates  due  north  and 
south. 

50.  Second  Method.  —  By  Mercator's  map,  in  which  the 
form  of  the  earth  is  assumed  to  be  that  of  a  cylinder. 


HEMISPHERE   MAP. 


47.  A  map  is  a  representation  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
earth's  surface  on  a  plane  (Def.  12). 


MERCATOR'S    MAP. 

Mercator's  map,  named  after  its  inventor,  Mercator,  is  designed  for  the 
use  of  mariners.  Its  value  is  in  showing  all  parts  of  the  earth  at 
one  view,  and  in  their  true  bearings;  but  it  distorts  the  form  of  the 
continents  and  oceans  by  their  expansion  toward  the  poles. 


TOPICAL   SYNOPSIS   OF   MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


TOPICAL    SYNOPSIS     FOR    REVIEW. 


Subject  Defined 


r         I.  Geography 

<  and 

t,       II.  Its  Subdivisions 


Mathematical. 

Pliysical. 

Political. 


Geometrical  Terms 


I.  Sphere. 
II.  Circumference  of  Sphere. 

III.  Diameter  of  Sphere. 

IV.  Axis. 

V.  Rotation. 
VI.  Revolution. 
VII.  Poles. 
VIII.  Plane. 


IX.  Circle. 


Geometrical. 
Geographical. 


X.  Circumference  of  Circle. 
XI.  Great  Circle. 
XII.  Small  Circle. 


XI 


Shape,    Size,    and    Motions   of 
the  Earth 


Geographical  Circles 


Latitude,  Longitude,  and  Zones.  . 


I.  Shape  of  the  Earth  . 


II.  Size  of  the  Earth 


III.  Motions  of  the  Earth 


, ,    „  <  Minute. 

"•  ^^S-"" 1  Second. 


5  Approximate  Form. 


IV.  Poles 

V.  Points  of  Direction  . 
I.  Definition. 


II.  Great  Circles 


III.  Small  Circles. 


I.  Geographical  Position. 
II.  Latitude 


III.  Longitude 


IV.  Zones 


Exact  Form. 
Circumference. 

Diameter 

Greatest  Circumference. 


Rotation 


Revolution  , 


North. 
South. 
Cardinal. 
Semi-cardinal. 


-  Equator 

Meridian  Circles  .     . 
.  Meridian 
Tropics 

Polar  Circles   .     .     . 
Parallels  of  Latitude. 

Definition. 
How  reckoned. 
Length  of  Degree. 

Definition. 
How  reckoned. 
Length  of  Degree     . 


Torrid 


Temperate  . 


Frigid 


Longest. 
Shortest. 

On  what. 

In  what  time. 

Effect, 
f  Around  what. 
(   In  what  time. 
I   Effect. 


Northern  Hemisphere. 
Southern  " 

Eastern  " 

Western  " 

Of  Cancer. 
Of  Capricorn. 
Arctic  Circle. 
Antarctic  " 


At  Equator. 

How  varying. 

Extent. 

Characteristics. 

North. 

South. 

Characteristics. 

North. 

South. 

Characteristics. 


Geographical  Appliances. 


Terrestrial  Globe. 
World-Map  .    , 


Hemisphere. 
Mercator's. 


DEFINITIONS    IN    PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


DEFINITIONS   IN   PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


YOSEMITE    VALLEY,   CALIFORNIA. 


DIVISIONS   OF   THE    LAND. 
I.  LAND-FORMS. 

51.  The  surface  of  the  earth  consists  of  land  and  water, 
about  one-fourth  being  land,  and  three-fourths  water. 

52.  The  land-surface  is  divided  into  two  continental  masses, 
called  the  Eastern  Continent  and  the  Western  Continent ;  and 
numerous  smaller  bodies,  called  islands. 

53.  The  Eastern  Continent,  or  Old  World,  is  in  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  and  comprises  the  three  grand  divisions  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  In  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  also,  is  the 
continental  island  of  Australia. 

54.  The  Western  Continent,  or  New  World,  is  in  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere,  and  comprises  the  grand  divisions  of  North 
and  South  America. 

Some  geographers  apply  the  term  "continent"  to  each  of  the  grand 
divisions  of  land,  and,  including  Australia,  make  six  continents, — 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Australia,  North  America,  and  South  America. 

55.  An  island  is  a  portion  of  land  smaller  than  a  continent, 
and  surrounded  by  water. 

I.  Islands  are  classed  as, — 

1.  Continental  islands,  which  are  situated  near  one  of  the  continents, 

of  which  they  appear  to  be  detached  parts. 

2.  Oceanic  islands,  which  are  situated  in  mid-ocean. 


II.  An  archipelago  is  a  group  or  cluster  of  islands. 

III.  The  chief  difference  between  a  continent  and  an  island  is  one  of  size : 
accordingly  Australia  may  be  regarded  either  as  the  smallest  conti- 
nent or  the  largest  island. 

56.  The  coast  is  that  part  of  the  land  which  borders  the 
water  ;  the  coast-line,  the  irregular  line  formed  by  the  meeting 
of  the  land  and  the  water. 

57.  Classification.  —  The  natural  divisions  of  land  are  classi- 
fied by  s/ia/>e  as  coast-lands,  and  by  height  as  surface-lands. 

I.  Contour,  or  shape,  is  the  form  of  a  body  of  land  as  determined  by  its 
coast-line. 
Relief,  or  height,  is  the  elevation  of  a  body  of  land  above  the  level  of 
the  sea. 
II.  These  terms  give  rise  to  the  following  classification :  — 

(Peninsula.  (Lowlands.  |^'^^',°y 

Contour-forms.  \  Cape.  Relief-forms,  .j  (  pi  t 

V  Isthmus.  ^^^^'^'''"'^•I  Mountain 


II.  CONTOUR-FORMS. 

58.  The  divisions  of  land  by  shape,  or  contour,  are  penin- 
sulas, capes,  and  isthmuses. 

59.  A  peninsula  is  a  part  of  the  land  nearly  surrounded  by 
water. 

60.  A  cape  is  a  point  of  land  extending  into  the  water. 

A  promontory  is  a  mountainous  cape. 


DIVISIONS   OF   LAND   AND   WATER. 


6 1.  An  isthmus  is  a  narrow  portion  of  land  connecting  two 
larger  bodies  of  land. 

III.  RELIEF-FORMS. 

62.  The  divisions  of  land  by  height,  or  relief,  are  lowlands,  or 
plains  and  valleys  ;  and  highlands,  or  plateaus  and  mountains. 

63.  A  plain  is  a  great  tract  of  low,  and  generally  level,  land. 

64.  A  valley  is  the  low  land  between  hills  or  mountains,  or 
a  marked  depression  below  the  general  level  of  a  plain. 

65.  A  plateau  (high  plain),  or  table-land,  is  a  great  tract  of 
lofty,  and  generally  level,  land. 

66.  A  mountain  is  a  great  mass  of  land  rising  above  the 
surrounding  country. 

I.  A  hill  is  an  elevation  lower  than  a  mountain.     The  name  is  generally 
applied  to  elevations  less  than  2,000  feet. 
II.  The  summit  oi  a  mountain  or  hill  is  its  highest  point;  the  base  is  its 
foot. 

67.  A  mountain  range,  or  chain,  is  a  connected  series  of 
mountains  extending  in  the  same  general  direction. 

68.  A   mountain   system    consists    of    several    ranges    near 
together,  and  extending  in  the  same  general  direction. 


II. 

DIVISIONS   OF  THE  WATER, 

I.  CLASSIFICATION. 

69.  The  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  divided  into 
the  oceans,  inland  waters,  and  coast  waters. 

II.  THE    OCEANS. 

70.  The  Ocean,  or  Great  Sea,  is  the  vast  expanse  of  water 
surrounding  the  continents,  and  covering  nearly  three-fourths 
of  the  earth's  surface. 


71.  An  ocean  is  one  of 
the  grand  divisions  into 
which  the  Ocean  is  divided 
by  the  position  and  relations 
of  the  continents. 

72.  Great  Oceans. — The 
Ocean    forms    three    great 
basins,  called  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

To  these,  for  convenience    of   geographical   description,  are 

added  the  names  Arctic  Ocean,  which  is  around  the  North 

Pole,  and  Antarctic  Ocean,  which  is  around  the  South  Pole. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  is  the  polar  region   of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 

oceans,  rather  than  a  separate  ocean  ;  the  Antarctic  Ocean  is  those 

parts  of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans,  that  are  within 

the  Antarctic  Circle. 

III.   INLAND  WATERS. 

73.  Inland  waters,  or  those  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  are 
lakes  and  rivers. 

Most  ir.hnd  w.Tters  arc  drained  —  that  is,  flow  —  into  the  ocean  or 
some  of  its  divisions  :  hence  they  are  sometimes  called  drainage 
waters. 

74.  A  lake  is  an  inland  sheet  of  water. 
Some  salt  lakes  are  called  seas. 

75.  A  river  is  a  large  stream  of  fresh  water. 
A  tributary  is  a  river  flowing  into  another  river. 

The  confluence  of  two  rivers  is  their  point  of  meeting. 
An  estuary  is  a  broad  mouth  of  a  river. 


8 


DEFINITIONS   IN   PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


76.  A  river  system  is  a  river  with  its  tributaries. 
TJ.  A  river  basin,  or  valley,  is  the  entire  region  drained  by  a 
river  system. 

78.  A  watershed   (literally  water-parting)  is    the   height   of 
land  that  separates  two  river  basins. 

This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  slope  down  which  a  river  or  river 
system  flows. 

IV.  COAST   WATERS. 

79.  The  coast  waters  are  seas,  gulfs  or  bays,  and  straits. 


80.  A  sea  is  a  large  division  of  the  Ocean  nearly  inclosed 
by  land. 

81.  A  gulf  or  bay  is  a  body  of  water  extending  into  the  land. 
A  harbor  is  a  small  bay,  in  which  ships  may  ride  at  anchor. 

82.  A  strait  is  a  narrow  passage  of  water  connecting  two 
larger  bodies  of  water. 

A  channel  is  a  wide  strait.     A  sound  is  a  shallow  strait,  or  channel. 

83.  An  ocean-current  is  a  broad  stream  of  water  flowing 
through  the  Ocean. 


TOPICAL  SYNOPSIS    FOR   REVIEW. 


The  Earth's  Surface  con- 
sists of 


LAND 


and 


WATER 


Extent 


Contour . 


Relief 


The  Ocean ■ 


Coast  Waters  , 


Inland  Waters 


Continents 


Islands. 
Peninsulas. 
Capes. 
Isthmuses. 
Plains. 
Valleys. 
Plateaus. 
Mountains. 
'  Atlantic. 
Pacific. 
Indian. 
Arctic. 
Antarctic. 
Seas. 

Gulfs,  or  Bays. 
Straits. 

Lakes    .     .     . 
Rivers  .    .    . 


5  North  America. 
(  South  America, 
f  Europe. 
■I   Asia. 
[  Africa. 


Fresh. 

Salt. 

Main  Streams. 

Tributaries. 


WESTERN   HEMISPHERE. 


EASTERN   HEMISPHERE. 


CLIMATE.  — PLANTS  AND   ANIMALS. 


III. 

CLIMATE. 

84.  Climate  is  the  condition  of.  the  atmosphere  in  regard  to 
heat  and  moisture  in  the  different  seasons. 

85.  General  Law.  —  The  heat  is  greatest  near  the  Equator 
and  diminishes  gradually  toward  the  Poles ;  in  other  words, 
the  dimate  of  a  place  depends  in  general  on  its  latitude.  But 
this  general  law  is  greatly  modified  by  other  conditions. 

86.  First  Modification.  —  The  altitude  of  a  place  affects  its 
temperature.  High  mountains  and  plateaus,  even  in  the  Torrid 
Zone,  have  a  cool  or  cold  climate. 

The  lower  and  denser  strata  of  the  atmosphere  absorb  the  greatest 
amount  of  the  sun's  heat,  and  are  therefore  the  warmest.  For  every 
one  hundred  yards  of  perpendicular  ascent  there  is  a  decrease  of 
one  degree  in  the  temperature :  hence,  even  at  the  Equator,  by 
ascending  to  the  height  of  about  16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  we  reach  the  snow-line,  where  winter  is  perpetual. 

87.  Second  Modification.  —  The  prevailing  winds  at  a  given 
place  modify  the  climate  of  the  place.  Currents  of  air  flowing 
from  the  equatorial  region  are  hot ;  currents  of  air  flowing  from 
the  polar  regions  are  cold.  Hence,  if  we  suppose  that,  of  two 
places  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  in  the  same  latitude, 
the  one  is  exposed  to  northerly  winds  and  the  other  to  southerly 
winds,  the  former  will  be  cooler  than  the  latter. '  In  like  manner, 
ocean-currents  modify  the  climate  (heat  and  moisture)  of  places. 

The  British  Isles,  which  have  a  mild,  humid  climate,  are  in  nearly  the 
same  latitude  as  Labrador.  The  cause  of  the  mild  weather  of 
the  British  Isles  is  a  warm  wind  borne  there  from  an  ocean-current 
called  the  Gulf  Stream. 

88.  Third  Modification. —  The  climate  of  a  place  is  greatly 
modified  by  its  nearness  to  or  remoteness  from  the  ocean. 

The  heat  absorbed  into  the  land  is  not  taken  in  to  a  great  depth,  and 
it  is  given  off  readily.  The  heat  absorbed  into  the  water  is  taken  in 
to  a  great  depth,  and  it  is  given  off  slowly.  The  ocean  is  thus  a 
great  storehouse  of  heat.  In  summer  the  air  over  the  ocean  is 
cooler  than  that  over  the  land,  because  the  ocean  radiates  its  heat 
more  slowly  than  the  land.  In  winter  the  air  over  the  ocean  is 
warmer  than  that  over  the  land,  because  the  land  has  then  lost  its 
heat  by  rapid  radiation,  while  the  ocean  has  preserved  its  heat. 

89.  Fourth  Modification.  —  The  climate  of  a  place  is  modi- 
fied by  the  length  of  the  day. 

More  heat  is  communicated  in  a  long  day  than  is  carried  off  in  the 
succeeding  short  night; 
so  that  heat  continues 
to  accumulate  during 
the  summer  season.  In 
the  polar  regions,  not- 
withstanding the  obli- 
quity of  the  sun's  rays, 
the  heat  during  the 
short  summer  is  very 
considerable,  for  the 
reason  that,  the  day 
being  continuous  for 
weeks  or  months,  the 
heat  accumulates.  This 
accumulation  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  the 
summer  heat  in  New 
York,  Chicago,  and  .St. 
Louis  is  often  more  intense  than  in  New  Orleans  or  Havana,  - 
places  near  the  Equator,  but  with  shorter  days. 


CLIMATE    BELTS 


Note.  —  The  zones  on  maps  and  globes  indicate  the  climate  of  places 
only  in  a  very  general  way.  The  actual  belts  of  climate  are  more  correctly 
shown  in  the  preceding  diagram.  The  lines  crossing  the  map  indicate  that 
the  places  crossed  by  each  line  have  the  same  average  amount  of  heat  in 
the  course  of  a  year.  They  are  called  isothermal  lines,  or  isotherms  (from 
two  Greek  words  signifying  equal  heat).  If  the  degree  of  heat  at  any  given 
place  depended  simply  on  the  latitude  of  the  place,  the  Tropics  and  Polar 
Circles  would  correctly  mark  the  boundaries  of  climate;  but,  since  it  de- 
pends on  other  conditions  as  well,  the  lines  marking  the  actual  belts  of 
climate  vary  in  direction. 

IV. 

PLANTS   AND  ANIMALS. 

90.  Vegetation  signifies  plant-life  in  its  manifold  forms. 

The  term  Jlora  is  often  employed  to  designate  the  plant-life  of  a 
region ;  thus  we  speak  of  the  Jlora  of  the  United  States,  of  Aus- 
tralia, &c.,  meaning  all  the  species  of  plants  in  these  regions. 

91.  Conditions  of  Plant-Life.  —  Plants  depend  for  their 
continuance  on  certain  physical  conditions.  The  conditions 
that  regulate  plant-life  are  heat  (with  light)  and  moisture.  A 
little  more  heat  or  a  little  more  cold,  a  little  more  moisture 
or  a  little  more  drought,  and  the  plant  flourishes  or  decays. 

92.  Distribution. — The  yearly  supply  of  heat  and  moisture 
is  greatest  in  the  equatorial  region  :  hence  vegetation  is  most 
luxuriant  within  the  Tropics,  and  diminishes  as  we  proceed 
toward  either  Pole. 

93.  Belts.  —  Different  regions  of  the  earth  present  different 
conditions  of  climate  ;  climate  controls  plants  :  hence  different 
regions  have  each  their  own  distinct  vegetation.  There  are 
four  well-marked  belts  of  plant-life,  —  the  Tropical,  Warm- 
Temperate,  Cold-Temperate,  and  Polar  belts. 

94.  The  Tropical  belt  corresponds  nearly  with  the  Torrid 
Zone  as  marked  on  maps  and  globes.  It  includes  all  countries 
where  frost  is  never  in  the  ground. 

Characteristic  plants  of  this  belt  are  palms,  bananas,  bread-fruit,  pine- 
apples, rice,  coffee,  the  sugar-cane,  spices,  opium  (from  the  poppy), 
indigo,  and  caoutchouc.  The  equatorial  parts  of  this  belt  are  further 
marked  by  canes,  bamboos,  large  and  showy  flowers,  and  gigantic 
parasitic  plants. 

95.  The  Polar  belt  includes  all  countries  where  frost  is  never 
out  of  the  ground.  Geographically  it  comprises  the  Frigid 
zones  and  parts  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone. 

This  belt  is  marked  by  the  dwarf  birch,  alder,  and  willow.  Its  more 
temperate  parts  yield  barley,  turnips,  and  Iceland  moss;  but  its 
higher  latitudes  produce  no  food-plants,  nor  indeed  any  kind  of 
vegetation  except  mosses,  lichens,  &c. 

96.  Temperate  Belts.  —  The  region  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes is  divided,  in  both  the  northern  and  the  southern 
hemisphere,  into  two  belts,  —  the  Warm-Temperate,  which 
adjoins  the  Tropical,  and  the  Cold-Temperate,  which  adjoins 
the  Polar  belt. 

In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  highest  latitudes  in  which 
Indian-corn  can  be  grown  mark  the  dividing-line  between  these  two 
belts.  The  warm-temperate  belt  is  the  land  of  the  vine  and  olive, 
the  laurel  and  myrtle.  It  has  numerous  kinds  of  deciduous  forest- 
trees  (those  which  shed  their  leaves  in  autumn),  as  the  oak,  chestnut, 
ash,  maple,  Cottonwood,  &c.  As  products  of  cultivation,  tea,  cotton, 
and  tobacco  may  be  noted.  The  chief  food-plants  are  corn,  wheat, 
rice,  and  potatoes.  The  line  of  the  cultivation  of  wheat  includes 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  cold-temperate  belt  ;  but  its  characteristic 
food-plants  are  barley,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  potatoes.  Flax  and 
hemp  are  grown.  Among  representative  forest-trees  are  the  pine, 
maple,  beech,  birch,  spruce,  and  larch. 


lO 


DEFINITIONS   IN   PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


ZONES   OF  PLANT   LIFE. 


ZONES  OF  ANIMAL   LIFE. 


97.  Effect  of  Altitude.  : —  Temperature  decreases  as  we 
ascend  from  the  level  of  the  sea  into  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere :  hence  at  the  Equator  the  traveler  who  ascends  a 
lofty  mountain  passes  through  belts  of  vegetation  similar  to 
those  that  mark  the  earth's  surface  from  the  Equator  to  the 
Poles. 

"  Nature  has  permitted  the  native  of  the  Torrid  Zone  to  behold  all 
the  vegetable  forms  of  the  earth  without  quitting  his  own  clime."  — 
Humboldt. 

98.  Animal  Life.  —  Animals,  like  plants,  are  influenced  by 
physical  conditions,  and  especially  by  climate  and  food.  The 
animals  of  the  Torrid  Zone  e.xcel  those  of  the  Temperate 
Zones  in  number,  size,  strength,  and  beauty ;  while  those  of  the 
Temperate  Zones  surpass  the  animals  of  the  polar  regions. 
There  are  three  principal  belts  of  animal  life. 

I.  The  Tropical  belt  is  the  home  of  such  animals  as  the  lion,  tiger, 
and  panther;  apes,  monkeys,  and  gorillas:  the  giraffe  and  zebra; 
the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  hippopotamus ;  the  crocodile  and  boa ; 
the  flamingo,  peacock,  parrot,  and  bird-of-paradise. 
II.  The  Temperate  belts  are  the  home  of  the  following,  among  other 
animals :  (i)  Domestic  Ani.mals,  as  the  horse,  camel,  llama,  ox, 
sheep,  goat,  hog,  dog ;  the  hen,  turkey,  goose,  &c. ;  (2)  Wild  Ani- 
mals, as  the  bear,  buffalo,  deer,  kangaroo,  wolf,  fox,  beaver;  the 
eagle,  hawk,  jay,  &c. 
III.  The  Polar  belt  numbers  among  its  leading  animals  the  white  polar- 
bear,  the  walrus,  seal,  reindeer,  dog,  arctic  fox,  sable,  ermine,  mar- 
ten, auk. 


Y. 

RACES    OF    MEN. 

99.  The  population  of  the  globe  is  about  1,435,000,000. 

100.  Races.  —  The  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are  divided  into 
five  great  races,  —  the  Caucasian,  or  white  race;  the  Mongol, 
or  yellow  race ;  the  Ethiopian,  or  black  race ;  the  Malay,  or 
brown  race  ;  and  the  American  Indian,  or  red  race. 

REFERENCE   TABLE    OF    RACES. 


Race. 


Caucasian 
Mongol  .  . 
Ethiopian 
Malay.  .  . 

Indian.  .  . 


Physical  Characteristics. 


Color:  white  to  swarthy.  Fea- 
tures: regular.  Hair:  waving 
or  curling.     Beard  :  heavy. 

Color:  olive-yeUow.  Features: 
face  broad  and  flat,  with  hieh 
cheek-bones,  and  small,  black, 
obUquely  set  eyes.  Hair:  coarse 
and  stiff.     Beard:  scanty. 

Color  :  brown  to  black.  Fea- 
tures: flat  nose,  retreating  fore- 
head, prominent  jaws.  Hair: 
short  and  crisp.    Beard:  scanty. 

Color:  brown.  Features:  much 
like  Mongolians,  but  with  hori- 
zontally set  eyes.     Beard:  full. 

Color:  red,  or  copper  hue.  Fea- 
tures: high  cheek-bones,  prom- 
inent nose,  and  black  eyes. 
Hair  :  straight  and  black. 
Beard,  scanty. 


Representative  Types. 


Leading  European  peoples, 
descendants  of  Euro- 
pean colonists,  Hin- 
doos, Arabs. 

Chinese.  Japanese,  Tar- 
tars, Turks,  Esquimaux. 


Tribes  of  Central  Africa, 
their  descendants  tn 
America. 

Inhabitants  of  Malacca,  of 
East  India  Islands,  and 
most  of  the  Isles  of  the 
Pacific. 

Indian  tribes  in  North  and 
South  America. 


Numbers. 


600  millions. 


550  millions. 


180  millions. 


60  milhons. 


to  millions. 


f 


TROPICAL  SCENE. 


POLAR    SCENE. 


STATES  OF  SOCIETY.  — GOVERNMENT.  — ETYMOLOGY  OF  TERMS. 


II 


DEFINITIONS   IN   POLITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


I. 

STATES    OF  SOCIETY. 

loi.  A  state  of  society  is  the  condition  of  a  people  in 
respect  to  civilization.  The  principal  states  are  the  savage, 
barbarous,  semi-civilized,  and  civilized. 

102.  The  savage  state  is  that  of  people  who  live  in  tribes, 
and  subsist  on  the  products  of  nature. 

103.  The  barbarous  state  is  that  of  a  people  who  possess 
flocks  and  herds,  and  rudely  till  the  soil. 

104.  The  semi-civilized  state  is  that  of  a  people  who  have 
a  settled  society,  live  in  towns,  possess  a  written  language,  and 
have  made  considerable  progress  in  the  mechanic  arts. 

105.  The  civilized,  or  enlightened,  state  is  the  condition  of 
the  most  advanced  nations, — of  those  that  have  made  the 
greatest  progress  in  the  arts,  sciences,  morals,  and  culture. 

II. 

GOVERNMENT. 

106.  The  principal  forms  of  government  are  the  republican 
and  the  monarchical. 


107.  A  republic  is  a  country  governed  by  men  chosen  by 
the  people  to  make  and  execute  the  laws. 

108.  A  monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the  chief 
authority  is  in  the  hands  of  a  sovereign,  called  king  (queen)  or 
emperor. 

A  limited,  or  constitutional,  monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the 

power  of  the  sovereign  is  limited  by  law,  and  the  laws  are  made  by 

representatives  of  the  people. 
An  absolute  monarchy,  autocracy,  or  despotism  is  a  government  in 

which  the  sovereign  has  unlimited  power  to  make  as  well  as  to 

execute  the  laws. 
A  kingdom  is  a  monarchy  governed  by  a  king  or  queen. 
An  empire  is  an  extensive  monarchy. 

109.  A  state,  in  our  country,  is  an  independent  member  of 
the  Federal  Union.  The  people  elect  a  state  government  and 
a  legislature,  to  make  state  laws. 

1 10.  A  territory,  in  our  country,  is  a  region  not  organized 
as  a  state,  yet  having  a  territorial  government. 

II  I.  A  county  is  a  subdivision  of  a  state,  having  its  own 
local  officers.  The  place  where  the  county  officers  transact 
business  is  called  the  county-seat,  or  shire-town. 

1X2.  The  metropolis  of  a  state  or  country  is  its  chief  city. 

113.  The  capital  of  a  country  is  the  seat  of  government. 


ETYMOLOGY   OF   TERMS    USED   IN    GEOGRAPHY. 


altitude.     Lat.  altitudo,  height,  from  altus,  high. 
annual.     Lat.  aninialis,  yearly,  from  annus,  year. 
antarctic.     Gr.  anti,  opposite,  and  arktos,  bear.     See  arctic. 

archipelago.     Gr.  archi,  chief,  and  pelagos,  sea ;  originally  applied  to  the  ^gean 
Sea,  which  is  studded  with  numerous  islands. 

arctic.     Gr.  arttiios,  from  arktos,  bear,  and  a  northern  constellation  so  called. 

Atlantic.     Lat.  Atlantictis ;  from  "  Atlas,"  a  fabled  Titan  who  was  condemned  to 
bear  heaven  on  his  head  and  hands. 

axis.     Lat.  axis,  an  axletree. 

barbarous.    Gr.  barbaros,  foreign. 

bay.     Fr.  baie,  from  Lat.  baia,  an  inlet. 

cancer.     Lat.  cancer,  a  crab  (one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac). 

cape.     Fr.  cap,  from  Lat.  caput,  head. 

capital.     Lat.  capitalis,  from  caput,  head. 

Capricorn.     Lat.  caper,  goat,  and  cornu,  horn  (one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac). 

cardinal,  adj.    Lat.  cardinalis,  from  cardo,  cardinis,  a  hinge. 

channel.     Lat.  canalis,  from  canna,  a  reed,  or  pipe. 

circle.     Lat.  circus,  from  Gr.  kirkos,  a  ring. 

circumference.     Lat.  circum,  around,  TiwAferre,  to  bear. 

city.     Fr.  cite,  from  Lat.  civitas,  a  state  or  community. 

civilized.    Lat.  civilis,  pertaining  to  an  organized  community. 

climate.     Gr.  klima,  klimatos,  slope,  the  supposed  slope  of   the  earth  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles. 

coast.     Old  Fr.  coste  (New  Fr.  c6te),  from  Lat.  casta,  rib,  side. 

confluence.     Lat.  con,  together,  and  fluere,  to  flow. 

continent.     Lat.  con,  together,  and  tenere,  to  hold. 

contour.     Lat.  con,  together,  and  tornus,  a  lathe. 

county.     Fr.  comte,  from  Lat.  comitatus,  governed  by  a  count. 

degree.     Lat.  de,  And  gradus,  a  step. 

diameter.     Gr.  dia,  through,  and  metron,  measure. 

diurnal.     Lat.  diurnalis,  daily,  from  dies,  day. 

equator.     Lat.  equus,  equal. 

estuary.     Lat.  (estuare,  to  boil  up,  or  be  furious ;  the  reference  being  to  the  commo- 
tion made  by  the  meeting  of  a  river-current  and  the  tide. 

frigid.     \j3\..  frigidus,  irom  frigere,  to  be  cold. 

geography.     Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  and  graphs,  a  description. 

globe.     Lat.  globus,  a  round  body. 

gulf.     Fr.  golfe,  from  Gr.  kolpos,  bosom,  bay. 


harbor.     Anglo-Saxon,  hereberga,  from  beorgan,  to  shelter. 

hemisphere.     Gr.  hemi,  half,  and  sphaira,  sphere. 

horizon.     Gr.  horizein,  to  bound. 

Indian  (ocean).     India. 

isthmus.     Gr.  isthmos,  a  neck. 

lake.     Lat.  lacus,  a  lake. 

latitude.     Lat.  latitudo,  from  latus,  broad. 

longitude.     Lat.  longitudo,  from  longus,  long. 

meridian.     Lat.  meridies,noon,  from  medius,  middle,  and  dies,  day. 

metropolis.     Gr.  meter,  mother,  and  polis,  city. 

monarchy.     Gr.  monarchis,  from  monos,  alone,  and  archein,  to  rule. 

mountain.     Fr.  montagne,  from  Lat.,  mons,  montis,  a  mountain. 

oblate.     Lat.  oblatus  {ob  and  past  part,  oi  ferre,  to  bring),  brought  forward. 

ocean.     Gr.  okea7ius,  from  okus,  rapid,  and  naein,  to  flow. 

orbit.     Lat.  orbita,  track,  from  orbis,  circle. 

Pacific.     Lat.  pacificus,  from  pax,  pads,  peace,  and  facere,  to  make. 

parallel.     Gr.  para,  beside,  and  allelon,  of  one  another. 

peninsula.     Lat.  pane,  almost,  and  insula,  island. 

physical.     Gr.  physis  (pkusis),  nature. 

plain.     Lat.  planus,  flat.  «. 

plateau.     Yx.  plateau,  table-land,  iromplat,  flat. 

plane.     Lat.  planus,  flat. 

pole.     Gr.  polos,  a  pivot. 

political.     Gr.  polis,  a  city  or  state. 

promontory.     Lat.  pro,  before,  and  mons,  montis,  a  mountain. 

radius.     Lat.  radius,  a  spoke. 

relief.     Fr.  relever,  from  Lat.  relevare,  to  raise. 

republic.     Lat.  res,  an  affair,  3.nd publico,  public;  that  is,  a  commonwealth 

river.     Fr.  riviere,  from  Lat.  ripa,  a  shore  or  bank. 

savage.     Fr.  sauiiage,  from  Lat.  silva,  a  wood. 

sea.     Anglo-Saxon,  see,  the  sea. 

society.     Lat.  societas,  from  socius,  a  companion. 

strait.     Old  Fr.  strait,  narrow. 

temperate.     Lat.  temperatus,  moderate,  from  temperare,  to  moderate. 

torrid.     Lat.  torridus,  parched,  from  torrere,  to  parch. 

tributary.     Lat.  tributarius,  contributing. 

tropic.     Gr.  tropikos,  turning,  from  irepein,  to  turn. 

zone.     Gr.  zone,  a  belt,  a  girdle. 


12 


STUDIES   ON   THE   HEMISPHERE   MAP. 


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COMPARATIVE   GEOGRAPHY   OF  THE  WORLD. 


13 


COMPARATIVE   GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE   WORLD. 


I.  THE    HEpaiSPHERES. 

1.  What  is  the  comparative  area  of  the  land  and  water  surfaces  of  the 
earth  ? 

About  one-fourth  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land,  the  remaining 
three-fourths  are  water.  / 

2.  What  are  the  proportions  of  land  and  water  in  the  hemispheres  into 
which  the  earth  may  be  divided  ? 

The  Eastern  Hemisphere  contains  about  two  and  a  half  times 
as  much  land  as  the  Western  ;  and  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
about  three  times  as  much  as  the  Southern. 

II.  THE   CONTINENTS. 

3.  How  many  continents  are  there? 

There  are  two  continents,  —  the  Eastern  Continent  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  the  Western  Continent  in  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere. 

4.  What  similarity  is  there  between  South  America  and  Africa  with  respect 
to  their  relation  to  the  main  body  of  the  continent? 

South  America  is  nearly  detached  from  North  America,  and 
is  connected  with  it  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama ;  Africa  is 
nearly  detached  from  the  continental  mass,  and  is  connected 
with  it  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 

5.  What  difference  is  there  between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Conti- 
nent with  respect  to  their  greatest  length  ? 

The  greatest  length  of  the  Eastern  Continent  is  from  east  to 
west,  or  in  the  direction  of  the  parallels ;  the  greatest  length  of 
the  Western  Continent  is  from  north  to  south,  or  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  meridians. 

6.  What  difference  is  there  between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Conti- 
nent with  respect  to  physical  features  ? 

The  Eastern  Continent  is  remarkable  for  mountains  and 
plateaus  ;  the  Western  Continent,  for  rivers  and  plains. 

III.  GRAND    DIVISIONS   OF   LAND. 

7.  Name  the  five  grand  divisions  of  land. 

The  five  grand  divisions  of  land  are  North  and  South  America, 
in  the  Western  Continent ;  and  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  in 
the  Eastern  Continent. 

8.  Name  the  grand  divisions  in  the  order  of  size. 

The  grand  divisions  in  the  order  of  size  are  Asia,  Africa, 
North  America,  South  America,  and  Europe. 


9.  What  are  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  grand  divisions  ? 

South  America  would  make  two  divisions  as  large  as  Europe  ; 
North  America,  two  and  a  half  divisions ;  Africa,  a  little  more 
than  three  ;  and  Asia,  four  and  a  half. 

10.  Which  grand  divisions  of  land  are  wholly  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere ? 

North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia  are  wholly  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere. 

11.  Which  grand  divisions  are  partly  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere? 
South  America  and  Africa  are  partly  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere. 

12.  What  contrast  do  the  northern  and  southern  grand  divisions  present 
with  respect  to  their  coast-lines  ? 

The  coast-lines  of  the  three  northern  grand  divisions  are 
broken  by  many  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays  ;  but  the  two  southern 
grand  divisions  have  few  great  inlets  of  the  ocean. 

IV.  GRAND    DIVISIONS    OF   WATER. 

13.  How  many  oceans  are  there,  and  how  are  they  classed? 

There  are  five  oceans,  classed  as  three  primary  oceans,  — 
the  Pacific,  Atlantic,  and  Indian  oceans  ;  and  two  secondary 
oceans,  —  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  oceans. 

14.  How  is  the  Pacific  Ocean  bounded  ? 

The  Pacific  Ocean  is  bounded  by  America  on  the  east,  Asia 
and  Australia  on  the  west,  and  the  Polar  circles  on  the  north 
and  south. 

15.  How  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean  bounded? 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  bounded  by  Europe  and  Africa  on  the 
east,  America  on  the  west,  and  the  Polar  circles  on  the  north 
and  south. 

16.  How  is  the  Indian  Ocean  bounded? 

The  Indian  Ocean  is  bounded  by  Southern  Asia  on  the  north, 
Australia  on  the  east,  the  Antarctic  circle  on  the  south,  and 
Africa  on  the  west. 

17.  Where  is  the  Arctic  Ocean? 

The  Arctic  Ocean  extends  around  the  North  Pole,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  northern  shores  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
continents,  and  by  the  Arctic  circle. 

18.  Where  is  the  Antarctic  Ocean? 

The  Antarctic  Ocean  extends  around  the  South  Pole,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  Antarctic  circle. 


MERCATOR'S    MAP. 


PHYSICAL   NORTH   AMERICA. 


15 


PHYSICAL   NORTH   AMERICA. 


PHYSICAL  VIEW   OF   NORTH   AMERICA. 

QUESTIONS   ON   THE   PHYSICAL   MAP. 

I.  What  geographical  circles  cross  North  America?  In  which  zone  is  the 
greater  part  of  this  grand  division?  In  which  zone  is  the  northern 
part'  Th"  southern  part?  What  isthmus  connects  North  America 
with  South  America  ?  Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  (ap- 
proximate estimate)  does  North  America  extend?  Through  how 
many  degrees  of  longitude  ?  What  is  the  time  at  Cape  Cod  when 
it  is  noon  at  Washington  ?  What  is  the  time  at  San  Francisco 
when  it  is  noon  at  Washington?  What  is  the  length  of  the  longest 
day  on  the  latitude  of  Newfoundland  and  Vancouver  Island  ?  On 
the  Arctic  Circle?  Where  is  the  day  six  months  long?  ^4 wj.  At  the 
North  Pole.  By  what  oceans  is  North  America  surrounded  ?  What 
is  the  general  direction  of  the  Atlantic  coast?  Of  the  Pacific  coast? 
1 1.  Name  the  two  seas  near  the  coast.  Name  all  the  gulfs  on  the  coast. 
The  bays.  The  straits.  Name  all  the  bodies  of  water  in  their 
order  from  Baffin  Bay  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  From  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama  to  Behring  Strait.  From  Behring  Strait  to  Baffin 
Bay.  Name  all  the  peninsulas  from  Labrador  to  Yucatan.  From 
Yucatan  to  Alaska.  Name  all  the  capes  from  Cape  Farewell  to 
Point  Moriato.  From  Point  Moriato  to  Cape  Prince  of  Wales. 
Name  all  the  islands  and  groups  of  islands  near  the  coast  of  North 
America. 


111.  What  two  great  highlands  in  North  America?  Which  is' 
the  more  extensive  ?  What  is  its  general  direction  ? 
What  mountain-ranges  are  near  the  Pacific  coast?  What 
mountain-system  occupies  the  central  part  of  the  Pacific 
Highland?  What  region  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains? 
What  two  plateaus  and  what  basin  in  the  Pacific  High- 
land ?  What  is  the  eastern  highland  called  ?  What 
mountain-system  does  it  contain  ?  In  what  direction  does 
it  extend  ?  What  highland  region  in  the  extreme  northern 
part  of  North  America? 

IV.  What  plain  between  the  great  highlands  ?  What  gulf  south 
of  it?  What  ocean  north?  What  is  the  northern  part 
of  the  Central  Plain  called?  The  southern  part?  What 
plain  is  east  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains?  Name  the 
principal  rivers  which  drain  the  Arctic  Plain.  What  lakes 
discharge  their  waters  through  these  rivers?  Name  the 
principal  rivers  which  drain  the  Pacific  Highland.  What 
great  river  drains  the  southern  part  of  the  Central  Plain  ? 
Name  its  four  principal  tributaries.  Name  the  "  Great 
Lakes  "  ?  What  river  drains  them  ? 
V.  What  parallel  and  what  circle  are  crossed  by  the  line  show- 
ing the  northern  limit  of  the  growth  of  trees?  On  which 
coast  does  it  extend  the  farther  north?  Where  is  the 
line  marking  tlie  northern  limit  of  the  growth  of  wheat? 
Point  out  two  extensive  forest  regions.  In  what  parts  of 
North  America  is  gold  found  ?  Silver?  Copper?  Lead? 
Iron?     Coal? 

VI.  What  ocean-currents  flow  along  the  western  coast  of  North 
America?  What  is  the  principal  current  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  named?  What  current  off  the  north-eastern 
coast  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  9,348,000  square  miles.    Population,  71,900,000.] 

I.    SITUATION,  EXTENT,  AND  OUTLINE. 

I.  Situation  and  Extent.  —  North  America  is  the 
northern  grand  division  of  the  Western  Continent.  It 
extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  almost  to  the  Equator  (nearly 
5,000  miles),  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is 
more  than  twice  as  large  as  Europe,  but  less  than  half  as  large 
as  Asia. 

2.  Outline.  —  This  grand  division  is  broadest  in  the  northern 
part ;  but  it  becomes  narrower  toward  the  south,  and  terminates 
in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Its  outline  is  irregular,  the  coast 
being  indented  by  numerous  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays. 

II.    SURFACE. 

3.  Natural  Divisions.  —  The  surface  of  North  America  is 
naturally  divided  into  four  parts  :  the  Pacific  Highland,  the 
Atlantic  Highland,  the  Atlantic  Plain,  and  the  Central  Plain. 

4.  The  Pacific  Highland  occupies  almost  all  the  western 
half  of  North  America,  and  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is  divided  by  the  Rocky  Mountains 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 

I.  The  Rocky  Mountains  form  the  backbone  of  North  America.  The 
massive  chains  of  this  system  rise  from  a  plateau  which  gradually 
ascends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  it  is  quite  low,  to  about 
8,000  feet  in  Mexico. 


I6 


PHYSICAL   NORTH    AMERICA. 


II.  The  Sierra  Nevada,  Cascade,  and  Coast  Mountains  form  the  western 
border  of  the  Pacific  Highland.  The  loftiest  pealc  in  North  America 
is  St.  Elias  (19,283  feet  high),  in  the  northern  Coast  Mountains. 

5.  The  Atlantic  Highland  extends  from  the  northern  coast 
of  Labrador  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  mountains  are 
the  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system. 

The  Atlantic  Highland  consists  of  the  plateau  of  Labrador  with 
Laurentide  Mountains,  on  the  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
the  Appalachian   mountain-system,  on   the  south.      The  Ap- 
palachian Mountains,  consisting  of  low  parallel  ranges,  are 
only  about  one-fourth  the  length  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in     )' 
structure  are  far  less  massive  than  that  system.     The  highest  peaks 
reach  an  elevation  of  less  than  8,000  feet. 

6.  The  Atlantic  Plain  is  the  slope  and  tide-water  region  be- 
tween the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

7.  The  Central  Plain  is  between  the  two  highland  regions,  and 
extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

I.  The  Central  Plain  is  formed  by  the  long 
gentle  slope  descending  eastward  from 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the 
western  slope  of  the       .    «'/' 
Atlantic  Highland.        i    -^n^ 


9.   Hot 

lowlands 
climate. 


Zone.  —  The  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  the 
of    Mexico    have   a    tropical,   or    constantly   warm, 

10.  The  temperate  region  includes 
^^  the  United  States,  the  basin  of  the 
St  Lawrence  and  Great  Lakes, 
and  the  plateau  of  Mexico. 
■^^  Owing  to  latitude  and  local 
causes,  there  are,  how- 
ever, important  differ- 
ences of  climate  in  this 
extensive  region. 


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II.  The  Central  Plain  consists  of  two 

opposite  slopes  divided  from  each  other 
by  a  slight  elevation  near  the  center, 
called  the  Height  of  Land.     The  northern  slope 
is  called  the  Arctic  Plain ;  the  southern  slope  is 
the  Mississippi  Valley. 

III.   CLIMATE. 

8.  Cold  Zone.  —  The  northern  third  of  North  America 
has  a  very  cold  climate ;  and  even  that  part  of  the  Arctic 
Plain  which  lies  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone  has  a  semi- 
arctic  climate. 

The  Central  Plain  is  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  while  most  of  it  is  cut  off  by  the  coast  mountain-ranges 
from  the  equalizing  influences  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans :  but  the  western  coast  from  Alaska  to  the  Columbia  ~\ 
River,  being  open  to  the  effect  of  the  warm  ocean-currents 
and  counter  trade-winds  of  the  Pacific,  has  a  much  milder 
climate  than  the  rest  of  NoUh  America  in  the  same 
latitude. 


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IV.    VEGETATION  AND  ANIMALS. 

II.  Vegetation.  —  North  America 
is  especially  distinguished,  in  the  tem- 
perate region  for  the  great  variety  of 
its  forest  trees,  and  in  the  warm  region 
for  the  number  of  its  large  flowering 
trees,  such  as  the  tulip-tree,  the  mag- 
nolias, the  catalpas,  and  the  locusts. 
The  plateaus  of  the  warm  region  are 
rich  in  plants  of  the  cactus  family, 
the  yucca,  and  the  agave  or  American 
aloe.     The  low  coast  plains  of  Mexico 


'PLANTS,  ANIMALS,  MINERALS,  AND    RACES   OF    NORTH   AMERICA. 


i7 


ANIMALS    OF    NORTH    AMERICA, 

and  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies  have  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  tropics, 

—  palms,  bananas,  sugar-cane,  etc. 

Most  of  the  cereals,  as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye,  are  not  indigenous  to  the  New  World,  but 
were  introduced  from  Europe.  The  most  characteristic  native  cereal  of  North  America  is 
maize,  or  Indian  corn,  which  is  extensively  cultivated  from  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies 
to  high  latitudes  in  this  grand  division. 

12.  Animals.  —  The  following  animals  are  peculiar  to  North  America  :  the  puma,  or 
panther,  the  most  powerful  animal  of  the  cat  tribe  belonging  to  this  continent,  and 
which  replaces  the  lion  and  tiger  of  Asia  ;  the  grizzly  bear,  the  largest  and  most 
ferocious  of  its  kind,  found  in  the  Rocky  and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains ;  the 
musk-ox,  of  the  Arctic  regions;  the  bison,  roaming  over  "The  Plains"  in  immense 
herds  ;  the  raccoon,  turkey,  passage-pigeon,  and  rattlesnake.  Among  other  wild 
animals  are  the  polar  bear,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  otter,  the  deer,  the  eflt,  and  the 
beaver.     These  North  America  has  in  common  with  the  Eastern  Continent. 

V.    MINERALS. 

13.  North  America  in  the  eastern  half  is  exceedingly  rich  in  the  useful  minerals, 
coal,  iron,  copper,  and  lead. 

The  coal-fields  of  North  America  are  more  extensive  than  those  of  all  other  countries  taken 
together. 

In  the  western  half  the  precious  metals  abound,  —  gold,  especially  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains,  silver  in  the  plateau  region  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  and 
both  gold  and  silver  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

VI.    INHABITANTS. 

14.  The  number  of  inhabitants  of  North  America  is  about  72,000,000,  or  one-fifth 
of  the  population  of   Europe.     Four  of  the  five  races  of  men  are  represented  :   the 

'  Indians,  the  aborigines,  who  formerly  occupied  the  whole  of  the  continent,  but  who 
are  now  confined  to  the  western  and  northern  parts  ;  the  Esquimaux,  a  Mongol  race 
dwelling  in  the  northern  parts,  together  with  the  Chinese  of  the  Pacific  coast  and  the 
West  Indies  ;  the  whites,  or  Caucasians,  descendants  of  colonists  from  the  various 
countries  of  Europe ;  and  the  negroes,  of  the  Ethiopian  race,  the  descendants  of  slaves 
introduced  into  Spanish  North  America  and  the  United  States. 

The  Caucasians  are  the  most  numerous,  numbering  more  than  56,000,000.  The  negroes  number 
about  10,000,000;  the  Indians  about  5,000,000. 

VII.    NATURAL  ADVANTAGES. 

15.  Among  the  natural  advantages  of  North  America  are  :  (i)  it  lies  mainly  in 
the  Temperate  Zone  ;  (2)  it  has  not,  like  other  grand  divisions,  impassable  mountain 
barriers  or  deserts  ;  (3)  it  possesses  a  vast  area  of  fertile  soil,  and  is  rich  in  the 
most  valuable  metals  and  minerals  ;  (4)  it  has  numerous  navigable  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  fine  harbors,  which  afford  excellent  facilities  for  commerce. 


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POLITICAL  NORTH   AMERICA. 


19 


NORTH   AMERICA. 


WHALING  IN  BAFFIN'S  BAY. 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  POLITICAL  MAP. 


General.  —  What  two  countries  occupy  the  greater  part  of  North  Amer- 
ica.' What  political  division  is  north-east  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada? 
North-west.'  What  country  is  south-west  of  the  United  States?  South- 
east of  Mexico?     What  division  is  south-east  of  the  United  States  ? 

Danish  America.  —  What  two  islands  constitute  Danish  America?  What 
is  the  capital  of   Iceland  ?     What  is  the  most  northern  town  in  N.  A.  ? 

Dominion  of  Canada.  —  Bound  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  What  is  the 
capital?  Name  two  cities  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  What  island  east 
of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence?  Does  it  belong  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada? 
Ans.  No;  it  is  a  separate  British  province.     What  is  its  capital? 

United  States.  —  Bound  the  United  States.  What  is  the  capital  ?  Name 
four  Atlantic  seaports.  What  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  ?  On 
the  Pacific  coast?     On  Lake  .Michigan?     Near  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri? 

Mexico.  —  Bound  .Mexico.     What  is  its  capital?     Its  chief  seaports? 

Central  America  and  West  Indies.  —  Bound  Central  America.  What 
city  in  the  north-west  ?  Name  the  four  largest  islands  of  the  West  Indies. 
Name  a  city  in  each. 

II. 

/stands.  —  /«  w/ia/  direction  is  it  from  the  nearest  land?  By  what  waters 
surrounded? 

Greenland?     Iceland?     Newfoundland?    Cape  Breton?    Bermuda  Isles? 


West  Indies?  Cuba?  Hayti  ?  Jamaica?  Porto  Rico?  Bahama  Isles? 
Vancouver?     Queen  Charlotte ?     Sitka? 

Peninsulas. — From  what  part  of  North  America  does  it  project?  Into 
what  -water,  or  between  what  waters  ? 

Labrador  ?      Nova   Scotia  ?      Florida  ?     Yucatan  ?     Lower   California  ? 

Capes.  —  Where  is  it  ?    Into  what  water  does  it  project  ? 

Point  Barrow?  Cape  Farewell?  Race?  Sable  (n.)?  Sable  (s.)?  Hat- 
teras?     Cape  San  Lucas?     Mendocino?     Flattery?     Prince  of  Wales? 

Mountains. — In  what  part  of  North  America  is  it?  In  what  direction 
does  it  extend? 

Rocky?  Sierra  Nevada?  Cascade?  Coast?  Sierra  Madre  ?  Appa- 
lachian ? 

Sea,  Gulfs,  and  Bays.  —  Where  is  it  ?    Of  what  body  of  water  is  it  an  arm  ? 

Baffin?  Hudson?  James?  St.  Lawrence?  Delaware?  Chesapeake? 
Mexico?     Caribbean?     California?     Behring? 

Straits.  —  Between  what  lands  ?     What  waters  does  it  connect  ? 

Davis?    Hudson?     Belle  Isle?     Florida?     Behring? 

Lakes.  —  Where  is  it  ?     What  is  its  outlet  ? 

Great  Bear?  Great  Slave?  Athabasca?  Winnipeg?  Superior?  Michi- 
gan?    Huron?     Erie?     Ontario?     Great  Salt?     Nicaragua? 

Rivers. — Where  does  it  rise?  In  what  direction,  and  into  what,  does  it 
flow? 

St.  Lawrence?  Hudson?  Mississippi?  Missouri?  Oliio?  Rio  Grande? 
Colorado(i)?  Colorado(2)?  Columbia?  Yukon?  Mackenzie?  Saskatche- 
wan ?     Arkansas  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 


POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

North  America  comprises  six  political  divisions :  Danish 
America,  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies. 

DANISH   AMERICA. 

1.  Danish  America  includes  Greenland  and  Iceland.  They 
belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Denmark. 

2.  Greenland.  —  The  population  (about  10,000)  consists  of 
Esquimaux  and  a  few  Danes  and  Norwegians  who  have  small 
trading  and  shipping  settlements   at    New  Herrnhut,   Uper- 


navik,  and  other  points.     The  chief  exports  are  eider-down, 
whale  and  seal  oil,  and  furs. 

Greenland  is  a  very  large  island,  or  perhaps  a  cluster  of  islands,  joined 
by  ice.     The   interior  has   never  been   explored.     The  mountain 
valleys  are  filled  with  glaciers,  which,  moving  slowly  to  the  sea, 
become  undermined   on   reaching  the   ocean,   and   immense  frag- 
ments are  broken  off,  forming  the  floating  mountains  of  ice  called 
icebergs. 
3.  Iceland.  —  The  inhabitants  of  Iceland  are  mostly  of  Nor- 
wegian  descent.     The  small  but  intelligent  population  of  the 
island  (72,500)  is  engaged  in  farming,  fishing,  and  sheep-raising. 
Reykjavik  is  the  capital. 


20 


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MEXICO,   CENTRAL  AMERICA,   AND   WEST   INDIES. 


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QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

Mexico. —  Bound  Mexico.  In  what  two  zones  is  it?  What  bay  east? 
What  gulf  in  the  north-west?  What  peninsula?  What  peninsula  in  the 
south-east?  What  mountain-chain  traverses  the  country?  Has  Mexico 
any  long  rivers  ?  What  large  river  forms  a  partial  boundary  between  Mex- 
ico and  the  United  States?  What  river  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  California? 
What  city  is  the  capital?  Name  the  seaports  of  the  Gulf  Coast.  Of  the 
Pacific  Coast.     Name  three  cities  nearly  in  2i°  north  latitude. 

Central  America. —  In  what  direction  does  Central  America  extend? 
With  what  country  is  it  connected  on  the  north-west?  On  the  south-east? 
Name  the  divisions  in  their  order  from  north  to  south.  Which  are  on  the 
Pacific  Coast?  On  the  Caribbean  Sea?  On  both?  In  which  republic  is 
Lake  Nicaragua?  Where  is  the  city  of  Guatemala?  Of  San  Salvador? 
Of  Managua  ?     Where  is  Comayagua  ?     Where  is  Balize  ?     San  Jose  ? 

West  Indies.  —  What  three  large  West  India  Islands  are  in  a  line  nearly 
east  and  west  ?  What  sea  south  of  those  islands  ?  What  island  south  of 
Cuba?  Where  is  Kingston?  In  what  direction  are  the  Bahamas  from 
Hayti  ?  Where  is  Matanzas  ?  Name  the  strait  separating  Florida  from 
the  West  Indies.  What  island  is  so  situated  as  to  command  the  entrance 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?  Which  of  the  groups  of  the  West  India  Islands 
extends  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer?  In  which  group  of  islands  is  St. 
Thomas  ?     In  which  group  is  Barbadoes  ? 


MEXICO. 

1.  Area. —The  area  of  Mexico  (751,000  square  miles)  is 
nearly  double  that  of  all  the  Atlantic  States. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  Pacific  Highland  of  North  America 
reaches  its  greatest  elevation  in  Mexico.  Two  mountain-ranges, 
situated  near  the  opposite  coasts,  extend  from  north-west  to 
south-east,  and  are  the  margins  of  a  great  mountain-plateau 
(from  4,000  to  8,000  feet  in  altitude),  which  forms  the  greater 
part  of  the  country. 

Between  the  mountains  and  the  coast  on  each  side  is  a  belt  of  low- 
land, varying  from  a  few  miles  to  one  hundred  miles  in  width.  The 
coast-belt  is  called  the  iierra  caliente,  or  hot  country  ;  the  table-land 
is  called  the  tierra  templada,  or  temperate  country. 

3.  Climate. — ^^  Climate  in  Mexico  depends  very  much  upon 
the  degree  of  elevation  of  the  surface.  The  coast  plains  are 
hot,  moist,  and  unhealthful ;  the  table-land  is  a  region  of  per- 
petual spring ;  the  high  mountains  have  a  cold  climate. 

4.  Inhabitants.  —  The  inhabitants  consist  of  Mexican  Indi- 
ans, who  form  the  majority;  of  Creoles,  who  are  descendants 
of  the  early  Spanish  settlers  ;  and  of  mixed  races. 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America  Mexico  was  inhabited  by  a 
superior  race  of  Indians  called  Aztecs.  They  had  fixed  homes,  good 
laws,  large  cities,  and  well-drilled  armies.  They  were  conquered  by 
Cortez,  who,  with  a  small  army  of  Spaniards,  aided  by  a  large  army 
of  Indians  hostile  to  the  Aztecs,  captured  the  city  of  Mexico,  the 
Aztec  capital.  Mexico  became  a  republic,  independent  of  Spain,  in 
1821.  It  at  one  time  included  California  and  Texas,  now  a  part  of 
our  own  country.  Texas  became  independent  of  Mexico  in  1836, 
and  Mexico  lost  California  in  1848.  The  population  of  Mexico  is 
now  about  10,000,000. 

5.  Commerce.  —  The  foreign  commerce  is  mostly  with  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  The  principal  exports  are 
silver,  lead,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  coffee,  cochineal,  and  mahogany. 

6.  Government.  —  Mexico  is  a  federal  republic,  consisting 
of  twenty-seven  states,  one  territory,  and  one  federal  district. 

7.  Cities.  —  The  City  of  Mexico,  the  capital  and  metropolis, 
is  a  picturesque  city,  situated  in  a  valley  overlooked  by  lofty 
snow-covered  mountains.  Guadalaxara,  Guanaxuato,  and  Pueblo 
are  important  cities  of  the  table-land.  Vera  Cruz  and  Acapulco 
are  the  chief  seaports. 


CENTRAL 

AMERICA. 

REPUBLICS. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

REPUBLICS. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

Guatemala .     .     . 
San  Salvador.     . 
Honduras  .     .     . 

46,800 

7,300 

46,500 

1,252,000 
554,000 
350,000 

Nicaragua  .     .     . 
Costa  Rica.     .     . 
Balize  (Colony)    . 

51,600 

19,980 

7,562 

300,000 

185,000 

24,700 

1.  Situation  and  States.  —  Central  America  occupies  a  long 
isthmus  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  and  as  a  ter- 
ritorial division  includes  five  independent  republics :  namely, 
Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa 
Rica,  together  with  Balize,  a  British  dependency. 

2.  Description.  —  The  surface,  climate,  productions,  and  pop- 
ulation of  Central  America  are  similar  to  those  of  Mexico. 

3.  Commerce.  —  The  small  foreign  commerce  consists  prin- 
cipally in  the  exportation  of  coffee,  cochineal,  mahogany,  rose- 
wood, and  dye-woods. 

4.  Cities.  —  The  capitals  of  the  republics,  in  the  order  given 
above,  are,  Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Tegucigalpa,  Managua, 
and  San  Jose. 

Balize.  —  Balize,  or  British  Honduras,  is  attached  to  the  government 
of  Jamaica.     The  town  of  Balize  is  the  principal  place. 

WEST   INDIES. 


DIVISIONS. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

DIVISIONS. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

Spanish  Colonies, 
British  Colonies  . 
French  Colonies  . 
Dutch  Colonies    . 

49,500 

13,300 
1,100 

430 

2,180,000 

1,245,000 

358,000 

43,000 

Danish  Colonies  . 
REPUBLICS. 

Hayti 

San  Domingo  .     . 

.40 

9,250 
20,600 

34,000 

550,000 
300,000 

1.  Situation.  —  The  West  Indies  form  an  archipelago  which 
extends  from  Florida  to  South  America. 

The  West  Indies  include  not  less  than  a  thousand  islands,  varying 
greatly  in  size.  The  land  surface  of  the  archipelago  is  about  twice 
that  of  New  York  State. 

2.  Divisions. — These  islands  are  divided  into  the  Greater 
Antilles,  the  Lesser  Antilles,  and  the  Bahamas. 

3.  Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  West  Indies  is  tropical  ; 
but  the  influence  of  the  surrounding  seas  and  of  the  trade- 
winds  moderates  the  intense  heat  of  the  Torrid  Zone.  The 
only  change  of  seasons  is  that  from  dry  to  rainy  weather. 

4.  Productions.  —  The  chief  articles  of  commercial  produce 
are  sugar,  rum,  and  molasses,  from  the  sugar-cane  ;  tobacco 
which  makes  the  finest  of  cigars ;  cotton,  coffee,  and  cacao  ; 
indigo  and  dye-stuffs  ;  ginger  and  allspice ;  together  with 
oranges,  bananas,  pine-apples,  and  many  other  delicious  fruits. 

5.  Population. — The  population  of  the  West  Indies  num- 
bers about  four  millions,  three-fourths  being  negroes. 

The  early  Spanish  conquerors  enslaved  the  native  Indians,  and  worked 
them  so  hard  that  they  eventually  died  out.  Then  the  Spaniards 
brought  great  numbers  of  African  slaves  to  these  islands,  and  the 
blacks  of  the  West  Indies  are  their  descendants. 

6.  Government.  —  Most  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies 
are  in  the  possession  of  European  nations,  principally  Spain 
(which  owns  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico),  Great  Britain  (which  owns 
Jamaica,  the  Bahamas,  and  most  of  the  Lesser  Antilles),  and 
France.  Hayti  consists  of  two  independent  negro  republics,  — 
Hayti  and  San  Domingo. 

7.  Cities.  —  The  principal  cities  are  Havana,  the  greatest 
sugar-market  in  the  world,  Matanzas,  and  Santiago  (all  three  in 
Cuba),  Kingston,  the  largest  city  in  Jamaica,  and  San  Juan  in 
Porto  Rico. 


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PHYSICAL   UNITED   STATES. 


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26 


PHYSICAL   UNITED   STATES. 


G  U  JL    r      o  F    M  E  X    I    C   0 


■1 


PHYSICAL  VIEW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


9.  Rivers.  —  The  Atlantic  Plain  is  drained  by  numerous 
navigable  rivers,  which  flow  at  right  angles  with  the  Appa- 
lachian system  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  larger  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  are  navigable  to  the  head  of 
tide-water,  the  limits  of  which  are  marked  by  falls  or  rapids,  as  those 
of  the  Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia,  of  the  Potomac  at  Georgetown, 
and  of  the  James  at  Richmond.  These  fails  and  rapids  furnish 
water-power. 

10.  Climate.  —  The  Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain,  though 
wholly  in  the  Temperate  Zone,  have  a  variety  of  climates. 
The  North  Atlantic  section  is  naturally  colder  than  the  South 
Atlantic  section.  The  winters  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  are, 
owing  to  local  causes,  much  colder  than  those  of  the  Pacific 
coast ;  and  the  Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain  differ  from  the 
Pacific  Highland  in  having  abundant  rains,  and  being  well 
watered  throughout. 

The  rains  of  this  section  are  supplied  by  the  moist  winds  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Great  Lakes. 

1 1.  Natural  Advantages.  —  The  principal  natural  advantages 
of  the  Atlantic  Highland  and  Plain  are  their  rich  deposits  of  coal 
and  iron,  their  extensive  forests,  generally  fertile  soil,  abundant 
water-power,  and  situation  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 


III.    THE   MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY. 

12.  Extent.  —  The  Mississippi  Valley  extends  between  the 
Atlantic  Highland  and  the  Pacific  Highland,  and  occupies 
nearly  one-half  the  area  of  the  United  States. 

Much  of  this  region  is  undulating,  parts  are  hilly,  and  there  are  a  few 
detached  mountain  districts  ;  but  on  the  whole  the  surface  is  that  of 
a  plain,  with  slopes  toward  the  center  from  each  of  the  two  highland 
regions,  and  a  general  slope  from  the  Height  of  Land  southward  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

13.  Drainage.  —  The  Mississippi  and  its  many  tributaries, 
forming,  next  to  the  Amazon  system,  the  most  extensive  river 
system  in  the  world,  furnish  the  principal  drainage  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley. 

14.  Climate.  —  The  southern  part  has  a  semi-tropical  climate, 
with  mild  winters ;  the  northern  has  hot  and  sultry  summers, 
and  cold  winters,  with  heavy  snows.  The  whole  section  has 
abundant  rains  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Great  Lakes. 

1$.  Natural  Advantages. —  The  principal  natural  advantages 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  its  rich  mines  of  coal,  iron,  cop- 
per, and  lead,  its  vast  forests,  its  great  extent  of  fertile  soil,  and 
its  numerous  navigable  rivers  and  lakes. 


POLITICAL   UNITED   STATES. 


27 


POLITICAL   UNITED   STATES. 


INTERIOR   OF  THE  SENATE  CHAMBER   IN  THE  CAPITOL  AT  WASHINCTON. 


DESCRIPTION, 


1.  Rank.  —  The  United  States  is  the  leading  republic  in  the 
world,  and  ranks  as  one  of  the  five  most  populous,  powerful, 
wealthy,  and  progressive  nations. 

In  extent  of  territory  the  United  States  ranks  fourth  among  the  great 
powers,  being  surpassed  only  by  the  Chinese,  British,  and  Russian 
Empires. 

2.  The  population  by  the  census  of  1880  was  over  fifty 
millions  (50,155,783.) 

3.  General  Government.  —  The  general  or  federal  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  is  republican  in  form  (representative 
democracy).  It  has  three  departments,  —  the  legislative,  ex- 
ecutive, and  judicial. 


I.  The   legislati}/e  department,  or  Congress,  is  composed  of  two  bodies 
or  houses, —  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 
II.  The  executive  function  is  vested  in  a  President,  who  is  chosen  for  a 

term  of  four  years. 
III.  The  Judicial  function   is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  consisting  of  a 
Chief  Justice  and  eight  Associate  Judges,  who  hold  a  session  once 
a  year  in  Washington  City. 

4.  National  Capital.  — Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United 
States,  is  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

5.  Political  Divisions.  —  The  United  States  consists  of 
thirty-eight  States,  nine  Territories,  the  District  of  Columbia, 
and  Alaska.  For  convenience  of  study,  these  are  in  this 
book  divided  into  the  following  sections  :  — 


New-England  States. 

Middle  States. 

Southern  States: 
Eastern  Division. 

Southern  States: 
Western  Division. 

Central  States: 
Eastei^  Division. 

Central  States: 
Western  Division. 

Pacific  Highland  Sutes: 

Mountain  and  Plateau 

Divisions. 

Pacific  Highland  States: 
Coast  Division. 

I.  Maine. 

I.  New  York. 

I.  Virginia. 

I.  Louisiana. 

I.  Ohio. 

I.  Minnesota. 

I.  Montana  Ter. 

I.  California. 

2.  New  Hampshire. 

2.  New  Jersey. 

2.  West  Virginia. 

2.  Arkansas. 

2.  Indiana. 

2.  Iowa. 

2.   Wyoming  Tcr. 

2.  Oregon. 

3.  Vermont. 

3.  Pennsylvania. 

3.  North  Carolina. 

3.  Texas. 

3.  Illinois. 

3.  Missouri. 

3.  Colorado. 

3.   Washington  Ter. 

4.  Massachusetts. 

4.  Maryland. 

4.  South  Carolina. 

4.  Indian    Terri- 

4.  Wisconsin. 

4.  Kansas. 

4.  Nnv  Mexico  Ter. 

[Alaska.^ 

5.  Rhode  Island. 

[Dislricl    of    Co- 

5. Georgia. 

5.  Michigan. 

5.  Nebraska. 

5.  Idaho  Territory. 

6.  Connecticut. 

lumbia.  \ 

6.  Florida. 

6.  Dakota    Terri- 

6. Nevada. 

5.  Delaware. 

7.  Kentucky. 

8.  Tennessee. 

9.  Alabama. 
10.  Mississippi. 

tory. 

7.  Utah  Territory. 

8.  Arizona  Ter. 

i^^s 


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30 


EASTERN   STATES,    OR   NEW   ENGLAND. 


EASTERN    STATES,    OR   NEW^   ENGLAND. 


VIEW  OF  BOSTON. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

I.    QUESTIONS   BY  STATES. 

The  Section.  —  How  many  and  what  states  in  this  section  ?  Bound  New 
England.  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  New-England  States?  The  small- 
est? Which  three  are  nearly  equal  in  size?  Which  has  no  sea-coast? 
Which  is  the  most  northern?  The  most  southern?  What  mountain  s)-s- 
tem  covers  a  large  part  of  New  England?  Ans.  —  The  Appalachian  sys- 
tem. Which  state  has  no  mountains?  To  what  two  systems  do  the  rivers 
of  New  England  belong?  A»s.  —  To  the  Atlantic  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
systems.  Name  the  principal  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  system.  In  what  gen- 
eral direction  do  they  flow  ?  Which  are  the  largest  rivers  ?  Name  the 
principal  rivers  of  the  St.  Lawrence  system.  (It  includes  those  flowing  into 
Lake  Champlain.)    Which  state  has  the  greatest  number  of  lakes  ? 

Maine. — What  are  the  principal  bays?  What  are  the  largest  islands  off 
the  coast?  What  three  large  rivers  flow  through  Maine?  What  river 
forms  part  of  the  northern  boundary  ?  Of  the  eastern  boundary  ?  Nam.e 
the  largest  lakes  of  Maine,  and  the  rivers  that  drain  them.  What  moun- 
tain near  the  eastern  boundary?  What  mountain  east  of  Chesuncook 
Lake?  Name  any  other  mountains  in  Maine.  What  city  on  the  Penob- 
scot?    On  the  Kennebec  ?     On  Casco  Bay?     Which  is  the  capital? 

New  Hampshire.  —  How  many  miles  of  sea-coast  has  New  Hampshire? 
[Measure  by  scale.]  What  mountains  are  in  the  northern  part?  What 
river  forms  the  western  boundary?  What  river  forms  a  partial  boundary  in 
the  south-east?  What  river  flows  through  the  central  part?  What  lake  in 
the  central  part?  Name  three  cities  of  New  Hampshire  on  the  Merrimac. 
Which  is  the  capital?    What  is  the  seaport? 

Vermont.  —  Along  what  parallel  is  the  northern  boundary  of  Vermont? 
What  long  lake  forms  part  of  the  western  boundary?  What  river  forms 
the  eastern  boundary?  Name  the  principal  streams  of  this  state  belonging 
to  the  St.  Lawrence  system.  What  mountain  range  in  this  state?  What 
city  on  Lake  Champlain  ?     What  is  the  capital  ? 

Massachusetts. —What  two  bays  east?  What  sound  south  ?  What  bay 
south  ?  Name  two  capes.  What  two  large  islands  off  the  southern  coast  ? 
What  group  of  islands  south  of  Buzzards  Bay  ?  What  sound  between  the 
Elizabeth  Islands  and  Martha's  Vineyard  '    What  large  river  flows  through 


the  state?  What  river  in  the  north-eastern  part?  In  the  western  part? 
What  mountain  range  in  the  western  part?  What  mountains  near  the  Con- 
necticut River?  What  mountain  in  the  northern  part  ?  What  is  the  capital  ? 
What  places  on  the  Merrimac  ?  On  the  Connecticut  ?  What  city  is  in  the 
central  part  of  the  state?  What  cities  on  Massachusetts  Bay  are  north  of 
Boston  ?     What  historic  place  on  Cape  Cod  Bay  ? 

Rhode  Island.  —  What  large  bay  in  this  state?  What  island  is  in  it? 
What  island  off  the  southern  coast  belongs  to  this  state?  What  cape 
{point)  in  the  southern  part?     Name  the  two  capitals  of  the  state. 

Connecticut.  —  What  body  of  water  south  of  Connecticut?  What  large 
island  south  of  Connecticut?  To  what  state  does  it  belong?  Ans.  To 
New  York.  What  is  the  principal  river  of  this  state?  What  river  in  the 
eastern  part?  In  the  western?  What  part  of  the  state  is  mountainous? 
What  is  the  capital  ?  What  two  cities  are  on  the  Thames?  What  two  on 
or  near  Long  Island  Sound? 

II.     REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

States.  —  //ou>  bounded?     What  is  the  capital  f 

Maine  ?  New  Hampshire  ?  Vermont  ?  Massachusetts  ?  Rhode  Island  ? 
Connecticut  ? 

Bays. —  Where  is  it? 

Passamaquoddy  ?  Buzzards?  Massachusetts?  Penobscot?  Casco? 
Long  Island  Sound  ? 

Capes.  — From  what  coast  does  it  project? 

Ann  ?     Cod  ? 

Mountains.  —  Where  are  they  f 

Green?     White?     Mount  Washington ?     Hoosac? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  f  In  what  direction,  through  what  states, 
and  into  what  body  of  water,  does  it  flow  f 

Penobscot  ?  Kennebec  ?  Saco  ?  Androscoggin  ?  Merrimac  ?  Connecti- 
cut?    Blackstone?     Housatonic  ? 

Lakes.  —  Where  situated?    By  what  drained? 

Moosehead?     Winnepisaukee  ?     Champlain? 

Cities.  —  In  what  part  of  what  state  is  it  ?    How  situated? 

Augusta?  Portland?  Bangor?  Concord?  Manchester?  Portsmouth? 
Montpelier?  Burlington?  Brattleborough ?  Boston?  Worcester?  Lowell? 
Cambridge?  Fall  River?  Springfield?  Providence?  Newport?  New 
Haven?    Hartford?    Bridgeport?    Norwich? 


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32 


EASTERN  STATES,  OR  NEW  ENGLAND. 


IL 


GENERAL   DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Situation  and  Area.  —  The  New  England  States  are  situ- 
ated between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  state  of  New  York. 
Their  area  is  about  one-fourth  of  that  of  Texas,  and  about  one 
and  a  half  times  that  of  New  York. 

2.  Surface.  —  New  England  occupies  the  northern  section  of 
the  Appalachian  system  ;  and  as  the  foot-hills  extend  nearly  to 
the  coast,  the  surface  is  generally  broken  or  mountainous. 

I.  The  longest  and  best  defined  range  extends  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Connecticut  River:  it  includes  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  and 
the  Hoosac  Mountains  of  Massachusetts. 
II.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Connecticut  River  is  an  irregular  chain  of 
mountain-groups   extend- 
ing from    Massachusetts 
into  Maine,  and  of  which 
the  loftiest  are  the  White 
Mountains.      Mt.  Wash- 
ington, the  highest  peak 
of  the  White  Mountains, 
is   6,288  feet  above   the 
level  of  the  sea. 


and  developed  by  an  extensive  railroad  system.  The  chief  exports  are 
manufactured  articles,  dairy  products,  lumber,  granite,  and  ice.  The  chief 
imports  are  breadstuffs  and  provisions,  coal,  and  raw  materials,  especially 
iron,  cotton,  and  wool. 


III. 

THE  STATES. 

REFERENCE   TABLE. 


STATES. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

STATES. 

Area  in 

Sq.  Miles 

in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

Maine     .... 
New  Hampshire  . 
Vermont     .     .     . 

33.040 
9,305 
9.565 

648,936 

346,991 
332,286 

Massachusetts .    . 
Rhode  Island  .     . 
Connecticut      .     . 

8,31s 
1,250 

4,99° 

1,783,085 

276,531 
622,700 

3.  Coast.— 
southward  to 
setts    Bay, 


The    coast, 

Massachu- 

is     bold    and 


rocky  ;  the  rest  is  low  and 
sandy.  It  has  numerous 
excellent  harbors.  The 
Atlantic  Plain,  in  New 
England,  is  only  from  40 
to  60  miles  wide. 

4.  Drainage.  —  Most  of 
the  numerous  rivers  belong 
to  the  Atlantic  system. 
They  are  navigable  only 
in  the  coast  plain,  but  the 
many  rapids  and  falls  afford 
abundant  water-power. 

5.  Climate. — The  sum- 
mers are  hot,  but  short ; 
the  winters,  long  and  se- 
vere. 

6.  Productions  and  Pursuits. — The  leading  pursuits  are 
manufactures  and  commerce ;  but  other  industries,  especially 
agriculture,  the  fisheries,  and  lumbering,  are  extensively  carried 
on  in  different  sections. 

Agriculture.  —  Not  enough  grain  is  grown  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
people ;  but  great  attention  is  given  to  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  and 
fruits,  and  to  dairying,  wool-growing,  and  stock-raising. 

Manufactures.  —  The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  boots  and  shoes,  machinery,  and  cutlery.  Manufacturing  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  abundant  water-power  and  cheap  access  to  the  coal-fields  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Fishing.  —  The  catching  of  cod  and  mackerel,  off  the  coast  and  on  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  their  preparation  for  market,  are  important 
industries  in  most  of  the  maritime  towns. 

Lumbering. —  In  the  three  northern  states  are  extensive  forests  of  pine 
and  hemlock,  and  the  preparation  of  lumber  is  a  leading  pursuit. 

Commerce.  —  New  England  has  an  immense  foreign  and  domestic  com- 
merce, favored  by  its  many  fine  harbors  and  its  facilities  for  ship-building, 


COTTON  SPINNING   IN   NEW   ENGLAND. 


1.  Maine  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  lumber  manufac- 
ture, its  ship-building,  in 
which  it  ranks  as  the  first 
state  in  the  Union,  and  its 
fishing  industry,  in  which 
it  ranks  next  to  Massachu- 
setts. 

2.  Chief  Cities.  —  Port- 
land is  the  largest  city  and 
chief  seaport,  and  is  the 
main  winter  outlet  for  the 
St.  Lawrence  Valley.  Ban- 
gor is  one  of  the  greatest 
lumber-marts  in  the  world. 
Augusta  is  the  capital. 

3.  New  Hampshire, 
sometimes  called  the  Switz- 
erland of  America,  on  ac- 
count of  the  grandeur  of 
its  White  Mountain  scen- 
ery, is  a  manufacturing  and 
farming  state. 

4.  Chief  Cities.  —  Man- 
chester, the  metropolis,  and 
Nashua,  are   great   manu- 
facturing   places.       Ports- 
mouth is  the  only  seaport.     Concord  is  the  capital. 

5.  Vermont  is  principally  devoted  to  stock-raising  and 
dairying. 

6.  Chief  Cities.  —  Burlington,  on  Lake  Champlain,  is  the 
largest  city.     Montpelier  is  the  capital. 

7.  Massachusetts  ranks  as  the  leading  state  in  manufac- 
turing and  the  fisheries,  and  as  next  to  New  York  in  commerce. 
It  is  noted  for  its  many  large  cities. 

8.  Chief  Cities.  —  Boston,  the  capital,  is  next  to  New  York 
in  foreign  commerce,  and  is  the  business  and  literary  metropolis 
of  New  England.  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  F'all  River  are  noted 
for  their  cotton  manufactures.  Lynn  is  famous  for  the  manu- 
facture of  ladies'  shoes;  Worcester  is  a  great  manufacturing 
city;  and  Springfield  gontains  the  principal  arsenal  of  the 
United  States.     Cambridge  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  College. 

9.  Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  but  one  of  the  most  thickly- 


SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES  ON  NEW  ENGLAND. 


3.^ 


MAKING    MAPLt-SUGAR. 


settled    and    prosperous 
states,  is  remarkable  for 
its  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  hardware,  jewelry,  and  plated  ware. 

lO.  Chief  Cities.  —  Providence,  the  metropolis,  is  the  second 
city  in  New  England.  Newport  is  a  famous  watering-place. 
These  cities  are  both  capitals. 


11.  Connecticut  is  noted  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  its 
manufactures.  It  is  also  a  fine  agricultural  state,  and  has  an 
extensive  coasting-trade. 

12.  Chief  Cities.  —  New  Haven,  the  seat  of  Yale  College, 
is  the  largest  city.  Hartford,  a  manufacturing  center  at  the 
head  of  ship-navigation  on  the  Connecticut  River,  is  the 
capital. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES. 


History — The  name  "New  England"  was  given  in  1 614,  by  Capt.  John 
Smith,  who  examined  the  shore  from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod,  and  drew  the 
earliest  map  of  the  region.  The  first  settlement  in  New  England  was  made 
by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  in  1620.  The  first  settlers  in 
Maine  were  fishermen,  who  built  huts  along  the  coast  soon  after  the  landing 
of  the  Pilgrims.  Maine  continued  a  part  of  Massachusetts  till  1820.  The 
first  settlements  in  New  Hampshire  were  made  in  1623,  near  Portsmouth 
and  at  Dover.  Vermont  was  a  part  of  New  York  and  New  Hampshire  till 
1 791,  when  it  came  into  the  Union  as  a  separate  state.  The  first  settle- 
ment in  Rhode  Island  was  made  in  1636,  at  Providence,  by  Roger  Wil- 
liams and  some  friends.  The  first  settlement  in  Connecticut  was  made  in 
1635,  at  Windsor. 

Names — The  name  "Maine"  coff.es  from  the  word  main;  this  part  of 
New  England  having  early  been  called  the  "mayne  land,"  in  distinction 
from  the  islands.  "  New  Hampshire  "  was  so  called  by  the  first  English 
proprietor,  Capt.  John  Mason,  who  had  previously  been  governor  of  Ports- 
mouth in  Hampshire,  England.  "Vermont"  is  derived  from  the  French  7w, 
green,  and  «/(?«/,  mountain.  "Massachusetts"  is  the  native  Indian  name. 
"Rhode  Island"  is  from  the  Dutch  name  of  the  island,  —  Roodt  Eylandt,  red 
island.     "  Connecticut "  is  the  Indian  name  of  the  river,  meaning  long  river. 

Scenery.  —  The  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  present  the  grand- 
est scenery  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  are  the  resort  of  thousands  of 
tourists  every  summer.  From  the  top  of  Mount  Washington,  up  whose 
steep  sides  a  railroad  of  novel  construction  carries  the  traveler,  a  glimpse 
of  the  Atlantic,  beyond  Portland,  is  obtained.  New  England  abounds  in 
lakes,  many  of  which  are  exceedingly  beautiful.  Moosehead  in  Maine  is 
the  largest,  and  Winnipesaukee  in  New  Hampshire  one  of  the  most  lovely. 
Other  noted  points  are  Mount  Holyoke,  Mass.,  from  the  summit  of  which 
a  superb  view  of  the  picturesque  Connecticut  valley  is  obtained,  the  wave- 
worn  promontory  of  Nahant,  and  Newport,  the  most  fashionable  watering- 
place  on  tlie  Atlantic  coast. 

Specialties  of  Manufacture.  —  There  is  scarcely  any  article,  from  an 
anchor  or  a  steam-engine  to  a  pin,  that  is  not  made  by  the  ingenious  and 
industrious  New-Englanders.  The  boots  and  shoes,  the  cutlery  and  fire- 
arms, of  New  England,  are  distributed  to  almost  every  part  of  the  world. 

The  sewing-machine,  one  of  the  greatest  of  labor-saving  contrivances. 


was  invented  by  Elias  Howe  of  Massachusetts,  in  1846.  It  has  cheapened 
the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  clothing:  boots  and-  shoes  are  now  sewed 
by  it.  The  construction  of  these  machines  is  an  important  branch  of  New 
England  manufacture. 

The  process  of  vulcanizing  India-rubber  was  discovered  about  the  same 
time  by  Charles  Goodyear  of  Massachusetts.  Since  this  discovery.  India- 
rubber  has  been  turned  to  account  in  the  fabrication  of  an  endless  number 
of  useful  articles.  Rubl)er  goods  are  extensively  manufactured  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  Connecticut. 

Among  the  thousand  articles  of  New  England  workmanship  may  be  men- 
tioned paper,  pianos,  and  pins  (most  of  the  pins  used  :n  the  United  States 
are  manufactured  at  Waterbury  and  Birmingham,  Conn.);  combs,  carriages, 
and  clocks ;  buttons,  buckles,  and  buckets ;  watches,  wire,  and  wooden-ware; 
rifles,  revolvers,  and  ribbons  ;  screws,  soap,  and  silver-ware  ;  German-silver 
ware  and  Britannia-ware;  locks  and  jewelry;  hooks  and  eyes;  together  with 
innumerable  other  small  articles  known  under  the  name  of  "  Yankee  notions-" 

The  great  national  armory  of  the  United  States  is  situated  at  Springfield, 
Mass.  It  is  capable  of  turning  out  fifteen  thousand  rifles  a  month.  All 
the  parts  of  the  Springfield  rifle  are  made  by  machinery,  and  each  rifle 
requires  five  hundred  distinct  operations  before  it  is  completed. 

Peculiar  Productions.  —  Nature  has  been  niggardly  in  her  gifts  to  New 
England,  and  it  has  been  said  that  Massachusetts  exports  none  of  her 
natural  productions  except  her  rocks  and  her  ice.  Yet  the  "  rocks  "  are 
valuable ;  for  the  granite  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  the  lime 
and  slate  of  Maine,  the  marbles  of  Vermont,  and  the  brownstone  of  Con- 
necticut, are  important  exports.  In  the  winter,  ice  is  cut  and  stored  in 
immense  quantities,  especially  in  Maine  and  Massachusetts,  and  is  shipped 
to  the  East  Indies,  the  West  Indies,  and  other  iceless  climes. 

The  vast  forests  of  pine  and  hemlock  in  northern  New  England  are 
another  natural  source  of  wealth.  The  lumbermen  go  into  the  woods  in 
the  fall,  and  remain  all  winter,  felling  the  trees,  and  cutting  them  into  logs. 
These  they  draw  over  the  snow-covered  ground  to  some  stream  ;  and  when 
it  thaws  in  spring,  the  loirs  float  down  to  the  saw-mills. 

Vermont  has  a  peculiar  gift  of  nature  in  the  sugar-maple,  a  deciduous 
tree  which  yields  a  sap  that  is  boiled  into  sugar.  Several  thousand  tons  of 
maple-sugar  are  made  in  that  state  every  year. 


34 


THE   MIDDLE   STATES. 


MIDDLE     STATES. 


VIEW    OF  NEW   YORK   CITY. 


QUESTIONS  ON   THE   MAP. 

I.  QUESTIONS   BY   STATES. 

The  Section —  How  many  states  in  this  section  ?  Which  two  are  the 
largest?  Which  two  are  nearly  equal  in  size?  Which  is  the  smallest? 
What  mountain-system  extends  through  a  large  part  of  this  section?  Ans. 
The  "Appalachian  system.  To  what  systems  do  the  rivers  of  this  section 
belong?  Arts.  To  the  Atlantic,  St.  Lawrence,  and  Mississippi  systems.  In 
what  longitude,  reckoned  from  Greenwich,  is  Washington  ?  What  state 
capital  is  in  nearly  the  same  longitude  ? 

New  York.  —  What  bodies  of  water  form  a  boundary  of  this  state  on  the 
north-west  ?  What  large  island  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  state  ?  What 
bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River?  What  mountains  in  the  north? 
In  the  east?  What  mountain-range  enters  New  York  from  New  Jersey? 
Name  the  principal  rivers  flowing  from  this  state  into  Lake  Ontario.  Into 
Pennsylvania.  What  is  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Hudson?  What 
river  connects  Lake  Erie  with  Lake  Ontario?  What  falls  in  this  river? 
What  canal  traverses  the  state  ?  What  large  city  on  Lake  Ontario  ?  On 
Lake  Erie  ?  What  cities  on  the  Erie  Canal  ?  What  two  large  places  in  the 
south-central  part  of  the  state  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  Name  large  cities 
near  Albany.  What  cities  on  the  Hudson  south  of  Albany?  What  great 
city  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson?     What  large  city  on  Long  Island? 

New  Jersey.  —  What  bodies  of  water  form  the  western  boundary  ?  What 
cape  in  the  northern  part?  In  the  southern  part?  What  mountain-range 
traverses  the  north-western  part  ?  On  what  river  is  the  capital  ?  What  four 
important  cities  in  the  north-eastern  part  ? 

Pennsylvania.  —  With  what  parallel  does  most  of  the  northern  boundary 
nearly  coincide  ?  What  river  forms  the  eastern  boundary-  ?  Name  the  princi- 
pal mountains.  What  two  large  rivers  in  this  state  unite  to  form  the  Ohio 
River?  In  what  lake  does  the  Alleghany  rise?  What  large  river  flows 
into  Chesapeake  Bay  ?     What  city  on  Lake  Erie  ?     What  two  at  the  head  of 


the   Ohio?    What  important  cities   are  nearly  on   the  meridian  of  Washing. 

ton?      Name  the  two  largest  cities  in   the   north-east.      On   the   SchuylkiU. 

What   is  the   capital? 

Delaware.  —  What   three    bodies    of  water   form    the    eastern    boundary? 
■What  cape  opposite  Cape  May?    What  large  city  in  the  north?     Name  the 

capital. 
I       Maryland.  — What  body  of  water  divides  the  state  into  two  parts?    What 

river  separates  it  from  Virginia?  What  part  is  mountainous?  Name  the 
,  principal  ranges.  What  two  cities  on  Chesapeake  Bay  ?  Which  is  the  capi- 
jtal?    What  city  in  the  north-west? 

District  of  Columbia.— On  what  river  is  it?    What  state  forms  three  of 

its  boundaries?    What  large  city  in  the  district?    What  is  Washington? 


II.  REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

States.  — //ow  bounded?     What  is  the  capital? 

New  York  ?     New  Jersey  ?     Pennsylvania  ?     Delaware  ?     Maryland  ? 

Bays  and  Sounds.  —  Where  is  it? 

Chesapeake?     Delaware?     New  York?     Long-Island  Sound ? 

Capes.  — From  what  coast  does  it  project? 

Sandy  Hook  ?     May  ?     Henlopen  ? 

Mountains.  —  Where  are  thev  ? 

Adirondack?  Catskill  ?  Chestnut  Ridge ?  Laurel  Ridge?  Alleghany? 
Tuscarora  ?     Blue  ?     Shawangunk  ? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction,  through  what  state ^pr 
states,  and  into  what  body  of  water,  does  if  flow  ? 

Mohawk?  Hudson?  Delaware?  Susquehanna?  Alleghany?  Monon- 
gahela  ?     Potomac  ? 

Cities.  —  In  what  part  of  what  state  is  it?    How  situated? 

Washington?  Albany?  Trenton?  Harrisburg?  Dover?  Annapolis? 
New  York?  Philadelphia?  Brooklyn?  Baltimore?  Newark?  Jersey 
City?  Rochester?  Allegheny?  Troy?  Syracuse?  Scranton?  Read- 
ing?    Paterson?     Wilmington? 


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36 


THE   MIDDLE   STATES. 


II. 

GENERAL   DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Names  and  Area.  —  The  Middle  States  are  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland.  In  this 
section  also  is  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  area  of  the 
Middle  States  is  about  twice  that  of  New  England. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  greater  part  of  this  section  is  in  the  At- 
lantic Highland,  but  the  western  part  is  in  the  Central  Plain ; 
and  hence  it  includes  three  natural  divisions :  the  Atlantic 
Plain,  rising  westward  through  foot-hills  into  the  ridges  of 
the  Appalachian  system,  west  of  which  is  a  low  plateau  de- 
scending to  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  and  the  Ohio  River. 

The  mountains  are  chains  and  ridges  of  the  Appalachian 
system,  the  principal  being  the  Adirondack  and  Catskill  Moun- 
tains in  New  York,  and  the  Blue,  Tuscarora,  and  Alleghany 
Mountains  in  Pennsylvania. 

I.  The  Appalachian  system  is  in- 
tersected by  a  low  depression 
formed  by  the  valley  of  the 
Hudson  and  Mohawk  Rivers  : 
this  separates  the  Adirondack 
Mountains  from  the  rest  of 
the  system,  and  forms  a  natu- 
ral highway  of  communication 
between  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
and  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
The  Erie  Canal,  which  follows 
the  valley  of  the  Mohawk,  con- 
nects the  waters  of  Lake  Erie 
at  Buffalo  with  the  Hudson  at 
Albany. 
II.  Mount  Marcy  (5,402  feet  in 
height),  in  the  Adirondack 
Mountains,  is  the  loftiest 
summit  of  the  Appalachian 
system  in  the  Middle  States. 
The  wilderness  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks  is  still  the  haunt  of  bears, 
deer,  and  other  wild  animals. 

3.  The  Atlantic  Plain  is 
very  narrow  in  New  York,  but 
it  increases  in  width  to  over 
100  miles  in  southern  Penn- 
sylvania. 

4.  Rivers. — The  rivers  of  the  Middle  States  belong  to  the 
Atlantic  system,  except  those  of  the  western  slope,  which 
belong  to  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence  systems. 

5.  The  Climate  presents  marked  contrasts,  the  winters  being 
long  and  severe  in  northern  New  York,  and  comparatively  short 
and  mild  in  southern  Maryland. 

6.  Productions  and  Pursuits. — The  leading  occupations 
are  manufacturing  and  commerce  ;  but  agriculture,  grazing,  and 
mining  are  all  great  and  important  industries. 

Manufactures.  —  Manufacturing  in  the  Middle  States  is  facilitated  by 
abundant  water-power  and  by  the  coal  of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  iron  and  steel,  boots 
and  shoes,  flour  and  meal,  and  spirituous  and  malt  liquors. 

Commerce.  —  This  section  has  a  vast  foreign  and  domestic  commerce, 
which  is  favored  by  its  central  position,  its  fine  harbors,  and  its  extensive 
system  of  lake,  river,  canal,  and  railroad  communication. 


Agriculture.  —  The  climate  and  soil  are  favorable  to  agricultiire,  and  all 
the  grains  except  rice  are  largely  raised.  The  crop  of  hay  and  potatoes  is 
immense;  the  raising  of  fruit  and  vegetables  for  the  markets  of  the  great 
seaboard  cities,  and  stock-raising  and  dairying,  are  extensively  carried  on. 

Minerals.  —  New  York  yields  salt;  New  Jersey,  iron  and  zinc;  Pennsyl- 
vania, coal  and  iron  ;  and  Maryland,  coal.  The  petroleum  of  Pennsylvania 
is  a  product  of  great  value,  and  is  largely  exported. 


III. 


THE   STATES. 


REFERENCE    TABLE. 


STATES. 

Area  in 

Sq.  Miles 

1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

STATES. 

Area  in 

Sq    Miles. 

1880 

Population 
in  1880. 

New  York.    .    . 
New  Jersey     .     . 
Pennsylvania  .     . 

49.170 

7.815 

45.215 

5,082,871 
1,131,116 
4.282,891 

Delaware    .    .    . 
Maryland    .     .     . 
[Dist.  of  Columbia.'] 

2P50 

12,210 

70 

146,608 

934.943 
177,624 

1.  New  York  is  the  fore- 
most of  the  states  in  popula- 
tion, wealth,  and  commerce, 
and  hence  is  often  called  the 
"  Empire  State." 

New  York  has  more  than  one- 
tenth  of  the  population,  and 
one-seventh  of  the  wealth,  of 
the  United  States. 

2.  Chief  Cities.  —  New 
York  City,  the  largest  city  in 
the  United  States,  and,  next  to 
London  and  Paris,  the  largest 
in  the  world,  is  the  commer- 
cial and  financial  metropolis 
of  the  Western  Continent. 
Brooklyn,  in  population  the 
third  city  of  the  United  States, 
is  closely  connected  with  New 
York  by  numerous  steam-fer- 
ries. 

New  York  City,  Brooklyn,  and 
Jersey  City  (N.J.),  though 
separate  cities,  yet  form  one 
compact  business  center,  with 
a  population  of  over  2,000,000. 

Among  the  other  important  cities  of  New  York  the  four 
largest  are  Buffalo,  on  Lake  Erie,  noted  for  its  manufactures, 
and  its  lake  and  canal  trade ;  Rochester,  on  the  upper  falls  of 
Genesee  River,  noted  for  its  water-power  and  its  large  manu- 
facturing and  milling  interests  ;  Troy,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Hudson,  noted  for  its  iron  and  steel-works ;  and  Syracuse,  for 
its  varied  manufactures  and  its  immense  salt-works.  Albany, 
on  the  Hudson,  is  the  capital. 

3.  New  Jersey  is  principally  engaged  in  raising  vegetables 
and  fruit  for  the  markets  of  New  York  City  on  the  north,  and 
Philadelphia  on  the  south.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  state 
are  many  large  manufacturing  cities,  and  the  mining  of  iron 
and  zinc  are  important  industries. 

4.  Chief  Cities.  —  Newark,  the  largest  city,  is  noted  for 
its  manufacture  of  India-rubber  and  leather  goods.  Jersey 
City,  on  the  west  shore  of  New  York  Bay,  is  an   important 


PENNSYLVANIA,   DELAWARE,   AND   MARYLAND. 


37 


^g^MV^ 


manufacturing-  and  shipping  place.     Trenton,  the  capital,  is  noted  for 
its  iron-works,  rolling-mills,  and  porcelain-kilns. 

5.  Pennsylvania  is  the  greatest  mining  state  in  the  Union,  and 
rivals  N«w  York  in  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  commerce. 

In  coal,  the  most  useful  minieral,  and  iron,  the  most  useful  metal,  Pennsylvania 
is  one  of  the  richest  regions  in  the  world.  The  annual  value  of  the  products 
of  the  mines  is  about  $100,000,000,  or  fully  one-half  the  total  value  of  all 
our  mining  i^rcJucts,  including  gold  and  silver. 

6.  Chief  Cities.  —  Philadelphia  is  the  second  city  of  the  United 
States  in  population  and  the  first  in  manufactures.  Pittsburg,  in  the 
bituminous  coal  region,  is  noted  for  its  iron-works,  rolling-mills,  and 
founderies.  Allegheny  City,  the  third  in  size,  is  near  Pittsburg,  and 
carries  on  the  same  industries.  Scranton  and  Wilkesbarre  in  the 
northern  anthracite  coal  field,  and  Pottsville  in  the  southern,  are  cen- 
ters of  the  coal  trade.     Harrisburg  is  the  capital. 

7.  Delaware  is  principally  engaged  in  fruit-growing  and  market- 
gardening;  but  it  has  also  considerable  manufactures. 

8.  Cfiief  Cities.  —  Wilmington,  the  only  large  city  in  the  state, 
builds  iron  steamships,  and  manufactures  railroad-cars,  carriages,  paper, 
and  gunpowder.     Dover  is  the  capital. 

9.  Maryland  is  a  fine  agricultural  state,  and  exports  wheat,  flour,  and 
tobacco ;  in  the  mountainous  western  region  are  rich  mines  of  coal 
and  iron. 

10.  Chief  Cities.  —  Baltimore,  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Railroad,  which  connects  it  with  the  cities  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  is  the  largest  city,  and  ranks  as  the  third  seaport  of  the 
United  States.  Annapolis,  the  capital,  is  the  seat  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy. 

II.  The  District  of  Columbia   is  an  irregular  area  of  70  square  miles  on  the  Maryland  side  of  the  Potomac. 
Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States. 


Shav 


FISHING^ 


It  contains 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES. 


History.  —  The  name  "  Middle  States  "  was  originally  given  to  those  states 
situated  between  New  England  and  the-  Southern  States,  at  the  time  our 
country  was  confined  to  the  narrow  strip  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

The  settlement  of  this  section  was  very  different  from  the  settlement  of 
New  England.  The  New  England  colonies  were  all  settled  by  men  of  the 
same  nationality  (English),  and  of  the  same  sect  (the  Puritan);  but  the  Mid- 
dle Colonies  were  established  by  people  of  very  diverse  origin  and  creed, — 
by  English  Episcopalians,  English  Quakers,  and  English  Catholics,  by 
Swedes,  by  Germans,  and  by  Hollanders. 

The  territory  which  is  now  the  state  of  New  York  was  discovered  in 
1609,  by  Henry  Hudson  (an  Englishman  in  the  emplo3mient  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company)  on  the  Hudson  River  side,  and  by  Champlain 
(the  French  governor  of  Canada)  on  the  Lake  Champlain  side.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  by  some  Dutch  (Hollandish)  traders,  on  Manhat- 
tan (or  New  York)  Island,  which  they  bought  from  the  Indians  for  sixty 
guilders  ($2$).  The  first  settlement  in  New  Jersey  was  made  in  1620,  at 
Bergen.  The  first  English  settlement  in  Pennsylvania  was  made  in  16S1, 
by  a  party  of  Quakers  sent  out  by  William  Penn.  The  first  settlement 
of  Delaware  was  made  in  1638,  by  a  company  of  Swedes  and  Finns  con- 


ducted by  Peter  Minuit,  who  had  been  Dutch  governor  of  New  Netherlands 
(New  York).  The  first  settlement  of  Maryland  was  made  in  1634,  by  a 
colony  of  English  Catholics,  then  persecuted  in  England. 

Names.  —  The  name  New  York  was  given  to  New  Netherlands  after  it 
was  taken  from  the  Dutch  by  the  English  in  1664.  It  was  so  named  in  honor 
of  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany  (afterwards  the  English  King  James  II.), 
to  whom  his  brother  King  Charles  II.  granted  the  territory.  The  name 
New  Jersey  was  given  by  Sir  George  Carteret,  to  whom  (with  Lord  Berkeley) 
the  province  was  ceded  by  Charles  II.,  and  who  had  been  governor  of  the 
little  island  of  Jersey,  England.  The  name  Pennsylvania  signifies  Pentfs 
Woodland  (Latin  sylva,  a  wood),  in  honor  of  William  Penn,  to  whom  the 
province  was  granted  by  the  English  government  in  payment  of  a  debt  due 
his  father.  Admiral  Penn.  Delaware  takes  its  name  from  Lord  De  la 
Ware,  governor  of  Virginia,  who  in  1610  entered  the  bay  bearing  his  name. 
The  name  Maryland  commemorates  the  fact  that  in  the  charter  of  King 
Charles  I.,  assigning  the  territory  to  Lord  Baltimore,  the  region  was  called 
7>rri7  Maria  (Mary's  Land),  in  honor  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  wife  of 
Charles  I.  As  New  York  is  called  the  "  Empire  State,"  so  Pennsylvania  is 
called  the  "  Keystone  State,"  and  New  Jersey,  the  "  GarSen  State." 


38 


SOUTHERN   STATES  :   EASTERN   DIVISION. 


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40 


SOUTHERN    STATES:    EASTERN   DIVISION. 


5-  Central  Plain.  —  The  Central  Plain,  or  Mississippi  Valley, 
includes  the  greater  part  of  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, Alabama,  and  the  whole  of  Mississippi.  The  general 
slope  is  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

6.  Climate.  —  The  northern  part  of  the  south-eastern  states 
has  a  warm-temperate,  and  the  southern  a  semi-tropical,  climate. 
The  summers  are  long  and  hot,  and  in  the  far  South  there  is 
scarcely  any  winter.  Abundant  rain,  from  the  moist  winds 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  falls  in  this 
section. 

7.  Vegetation.  —  The  magnolias,  the  palmetto,  and  the 
cypress,  with  pendent  moss,  characterize  the  coast  belt ;  farther 
inland  is  the  zone  of  the  pine  ;  this  is  succeeded  by  forests  of 
oak  and  the  deciduous  trees.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  coast 
region  are  forests  of  live-oak,  the  most  valuable  timber  for 
ship-building. 

8.  Rivers.  —  The 
rivers  of  this  section 
belong  to  three  sys- 
tems, —  the  Atlantic 
system,  the  Missis- 
sippi system,  and  the 
Gulf  system. 

9.  Natural  Advan- 
tages. —  The  soil  is 
admirably  adapted  for 
the  growth  of  cotton 
and  the  cereals,  and, 
it\  the  southern  part, 
of  semi-tropical  fruits. 
The  forests  supply  ship- 
timber  and  naval  stores. 
Coal  and  iron,  salt, 
marble,  and  gypsum, 
are  among  the  mineral 
riches  of  this  section. 

10.  Agriculture.  — 
The  fertile  soil,  abun- 
dant moisture,  and 
warm   temperature,  of 

this  section,  give  rise  to  its  great  industry,  —  agriculture.     The 
chief  products  are  cotton,  tobacco,  corn,  rice,  and  sweet-potatoes. 

Cotton :  Mississippi,  Georgia,  and  Alabama.  Tobacco :  Kentucky, 
Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina.  Corn  :  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, North  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  Rice :  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  North  Carolina.  Sweet-potatoes :  North  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi. 

11.  Other  industries  pursued  in  the  Southern  States  are 
manufacturing,  mining,  lumbering,  and  commerce. 

Manufactures.  —  The  principal  manufacturing  establishments  are  iron- 
works, rolling-mills,  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  hemp-factories,  lumber-mills, 
and  tobacco-factories. 

Mining — Coal  and  iron  abound  in  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  Alabama,  and  the  mining  interest  is  developing  rapidly. 

Lumbering  is  largely  carried  on  in  the  pine-forests  of  the  coast  region. 
From  the  long-leaved  pitch-pine  (a  different  tree  from  the  northern  pine) 
are  obtained  naval  stores ;  that  is,  pitch,  tar,  and  turpentine. 

Commerce.  —  The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  lumber,  and 
naval  stores,  shipped  from  Norfolk,  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  Mobile, 
which  are  the  principal  seaports. 


in. 

THE  STATES. 


STATES. 

Area  in 
£q.  Miles 
in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

STATES. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

Virginia      .    .    . 
West  Virginia     . 
North  Carolina   . 
South  Carolina    . 
Georgia .... 

42450 
24,780 
52,250 
30,57° 

59.475 

1,512,565 
618,457 

'.399.75° 
995.577 

1,542,180 

Florida   .... 
Kentucky     .     .     . 
Tennessee   .     .     . 
Alabama      .     .     . 
Mississippi  .    .    . 

58,680 
40,400 
42,050 
52,250 
46,810 

269,493 
1,648,690 

1.542,359 
1,262,505  1 

1.131,597 

PICKING    COTTON. 


1.  Virginia  is  principally  engaged  in  agriculture,  the  leading 
staples  being  tobacco,  wheat,  and  corn.  Secondary  interests 
are  mining,  market-gardening,  and  oystering. 

2.  Chief  Cities.  —  Richmond,  at  the  head  of  tide-water  on 
the  James  River,  is  the  capital  and  largest  city,  and  is  noted 

for  its  tobacco-facto- 
ries, flour-mills,  and 
iron-works.  Norfolk  is 
the  principal  seaport 
of  Virginia.  Peters- 
burg, at  the  head  of 
tide-water  on  the  Ap- 
pomattox, has  a  large 
trade  in  grain  and  to- 
bacco. 

3.  West  Virginia  is 
rich  in  coal,  iron,  salt, 
and  petroleum  ;  and 
the  development  of 
these  resources,  to- 
gether with  agricul- 
ture, constitutes  her 
principal  industries. 

4.  Chief  Cities.  — 
Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city,  and 
contains  numerous 
iron-works  and  manu- 
factories.    Parkersburg  is  next  in  importance. 

5.  North  Carolina  is  chiefly  engaged  in  raising  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, corn,  and  sweet-potatoes.  Lumbering  is  important,  and  in 
this  and  the  production  of  pitch,  tar,  turpentine,  and  rosin,  she 
is  the  leading  state. 

6.  Chief  Cities.  —  Wilmington  is  the  largest  city  and  chief 
seaport.     Raleigh  is  the  capital. 

7.  South  Carolina  is  noted  for  the  production  of  cotton  of 
the  finest  quality,  and  of  rice,  in  the  growing  of  which  she  is 
the  leading  state. 

8.  Chief  Cities.  —  Charleston,  the  largest  city,  is  a  leading 
cotton  port.     Columbia  is  the  capital. 

9.  Georgia  ranks  as  the  first  of  the  Southern  States  in  manu- 
factures, and  the  second  in  the  production  of  cotton,  rice,  and 
sweet-potatoes. 

10.  Chief  Cities.  —  Savannah  is  an  important  city  and  the 
principal  seaport.  Atlanta,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  a 
railroad,  manufacturing,  and  business  center.  Augusta,  Macon, 
and  Columbus  are  cotton-manufacturing  cities. 


SOUTHERN   STATES:    EASTERN   DIVISION. 


41 


11.  Florida  is  noted  for  its  production  of  oranges,  lemons, 
figs,  and  other  semi-tropical  fruits. 

12.  Chief  Cities.  —  Key  West  and  Jacksonville  are  the 
largest  cities.  Pensacola  is  an  important  seaport.  Tallahassee 
is  the  capital. 

13.  Kentucky  ranks  as  the  first  of  the  Southern  States  in 
population  and  in  the  production  of  tobacco  and  hemp. 

14.  Chief  Cities.  —  Louisville,  on  the  Ohio  River,  is  the 
largest  city  and  the  commercial  center  of  the  state  ;  Covington 
and  Newport,  connected  by  bridges  with  Cincinnati,  are  manu- 
facturing points.     Frankfort  is  the  capital. 

15.  Tennessee  is  divided  into  East  Tennessee,  Middle  Ten- 

nessee, and  West  Tennessee.  The 
leading  occupations  are  mining  and 
grazing  in  the  eastern,  the  raising 
of  cotton,  corn,  and  wheat  in  the 
middle,  and  cotton  and  tobacco 
growing  in  the  western  section. 


16.  Chief  Cities. —  Memphis,  on  the  Mississippi,  is  the 
principal  cotton  and  grain  mart  between  St.  Louis  and  New 
Orleans.  Nashville,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  the  business 
center  of  Middle  Tennessee.  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga  are 
the  chief  cities  of  East  Tennessee. 

17.  Alabama  is  principally  engaged  in  raising  cotton  and 
corn  ;  but  manufacturing  and  the  working  of  her  coal  and  iron 
mines  are  growing  industries. 

18.  Chief  Cities.  —  Mobile,  the  largest  city,  is  a  leading 
cotton  port.  Montgomery  the  capital,  Selma,  and  Tuscaloosa, 
are  important  depots  of  the  cotton  business. 

19.  Mississippi  is  distinguished  as  the  leading  state  in  the 
culture  of  cotton.  Over  half  a  million  bales  of  this  staple  are 
produced  in  the  state  every  year. 

20.  Chief  Cities.  —  Vicksburg  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
Natchez,  a  river  town  one  hundred  miles  farther  south,  are  the 
most  important  places.  Jackson  is  the  capital.  Mississippi  has 
no  large  seaport. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES. 


History.  —  Virginia  was  the  name  given 
by  tlie  Englisli  to  nearly  the  whole  Atlantic 
coast,  after  the  explorations  and  attempted 
settlements  made  under  the  patronage  of 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1584-87.  The  first 
settlement  within  the  limits  of  the  state 
was  made  by  an  English  colony  at  James- 
town, in  1607.  West  Virginia  formed  a 
part  of  the  State  of  Virginia  till  1862, 
when  it  was  organized  as  a  separate  state. 
The  first  settlements  in  North  Carolina 
were  made  between  1640  and  1650,  by 
emigrants  from  Virginia.  The  first  set- 
tlement in  South  Carolina  was  made  by 
English  settlers  in  1670,  at  Old  Charleston. 
The  Carolinas,  North  and  South,  formed 
one  province  till  1729. 

The  first  settlement  in  Georgia  was 
made  in  1733,  at  Savannah,  by  an  English 
colony  led  by  Gen.  James  Oglethorpe. 

The  first  European  settlement  in  Flori- 
da was  made  on  the  River  St.  John's  in 
1564,  by  a  colony  of  French  Huguenots; 
but  the  Spaniards,  claiming  the  whole 
country,  massacred  the  settlers,  and  in 
1565  founded  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest 
town  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States.  In  1819  Florida  was  purchased 
from  Spain  by  the  United  States  for  five 
million  dollars. 


Kentucky  is  the  oldest  of  the  states  west  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 
The  way  for  the  settlement  of  both  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  was  prepared 
by  the  explorations  of  the  bold  North  Carolina  hunter,  Daniel  Boone.  In 
1775  lasting  settlement  in  Kentucky  was  made  by  Boone  and  some  friends. 
Kentucky  came  into  the  Union  as  a  state  in  1792. 

The  first  settlement  in  Tennessee  (originally  a  part  of  North  Carolina) 
was  ma4f  in  1778  by  a  party  of  refugees  from  British  tyranny  in  Carolina. 
Tennessee  entered  the  Union  in  1796. 

The  territory  now  occupied  by  Alabama  and  Mississippi  belonged  to  the 
state  of  Georgia,  and  by  that  state  was  in  1800  ceded  to  the  United  States. 
The  region  was  then  organized  as  the  "Territory  of  Mississippi."  In  1817 
the  state  of  Mississippi  was  carved  out  of  this  territory,  and  in  1819  the 
state  of  Alabama. 

Names.  —  Virginia  (a  name  which,  as  before  said,  was  at  first  given  to  the 
whole  Atlantic  coast  claimed  by  the  English)  was  so  called  in  honor  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  "  the  Virgin  Queen."  West  Virginia  was  so  called  when  formed 
into  a  state  in  1862.  The  Carolinas  were  so  named  in  honor  of  the  English 
king  Charles  II.  (Latin  Carolus).  The  name  Georgia  was  given  in  honor  of 
the  English  king  George  II.,  who  granted  the  territory  to  Oglethorpe  and 
other  "  trustees."  Florida  was  so  named  by  the  Spanish  explorer,  Ponce  de 
Leon,  because  the  region  was  discovered 
on  Easter  Sunday,  called  in  Spanish  pas- 
cua  florida.  Kentucky  is  a  native  Indian 
name  signifying  "  the  dark  and  bloody 
ground,"  because  in  aboriginal  times  it 
was  the  battlefield  of  the  northern  and 
southern  Indians.  Tennessee  is  named 
after  the  river  of  the  same  name,  signify- 
ing "  the  river  of  the  big  bend."  (Notice 
on  the  map  the  great  curve  made  by  the 


VfUlRlDft!^ 


42 


SOUTHERN    STATES:    WESTERN   DIVISION. 


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44 


SOUTHERN   STATES:    WESTERN   DIVISION. 


II. 

GENERAL   DESCRIPTION. 


SUGAR-PLANTATION. 


I.  Area.  —  This 

section,  which  in- 
cludes Louisiana,  Ar- 
kansas,   Texas,    and 

Indian  Territory,   has  an  area  more  than  double  that  of  the 

New  England  and  the  Middle  States. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  south-eastern  portion  is  in  the  low  plain 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  whence  the  surface  rises  westward 
into  the  Plains,  which  occupy  a  large  part  of  this  section. 

Al^^ng  the  coast  are  extensive  swamps  and  marshes.  North-western 
Texas  is  a  table-land,  rising  to  a  height  of  4,000  feet,  and  forming 
the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  some  outlying  ridges  of 
which  extend  into  this  state. 

3.  Drainage.  —  The  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  form  the 
principal  drainage  of  the  eastern  portion.  Most  of  the  rivers 
of  Texas  rise  in  the  western  plateau,  and  flow  south-east  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  southern  part  of  Louisiana  is  almost  on  the  river-level,  and  is 
liable  to  inundation  in  the  spring,  when  the  Mississippi  is  swollen. 
To  confine  it  within  its  banks,  levees,  which  are  broad  walls  of 
earth,  have  been  constructed. 

4.  Climate. — The  climate  of  this  section  is  warm,  and  along 
the  gulf-coast  semi-tropical.  The  eastern  part  has  abundant 
rains  ;  the  western  part  is  nearly  rainless. 

5.  Occupations.  —  The  principal  occupation  is  agriculture, 
the  chief  staples  being  corn,  cotton,  sugar  and  tobacco.  The 
broad  prairies  of  Texas  are  the  grazing-grounds  of  millions  of 
cattle. 


III. 

THE  STATES. 

REFERENCE   TABLE. 


STATES. 


Louisiana 
Arkansas 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 


48,720 


Population 
in  1880. 


939.946 
802,525 


Texas      .     .     .     . 
Indian  Territory 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 


265,780 
64,690 


Popjiation 
in  1380. 


i.59>.749 

76,895 


I.  Louisiana  is  an  important  state  on  account  of  its  valua- 
ble staple  products,  and  its  commanding  commercial  position. 
The  principal  occupations  are  agriculture  and  commerce. 

1.  The  staple  products  are  the  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  rice.     The  state 

produces  nine-tenths  of  all  the  sugar  raised  in  the  United  States, 
and  great  crops  of  cotton  and  rice. 
II.  The  commercial  facilities  of  the  state  arise  from  its  situation  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  This  gives  it  the  control  both  of  the  foreign  and  the 
domestic  trade  of  this  rich  section. 

2.  Chief  Cities. — New  Orleans  is  the  largest  city  in  the 
Gulf  States,  and  the  greatest  cotton-market  in  the  world. 
Baton  Rouge,  the  capital,  and  Shreveport,  are  next  in  size. 

3.  Arkansas.  —  The  staple  products  of  this  state  are  cotton 
and  corn.  Stock-raising  is  extensive,  and  the  mineral  wealth  is 
great. 

4.  Cities.  —  Little  Rock  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.  Other 
important  places  are  Fort  Smith,  Pine  Bluff,  and  Hot  Springs. 


LAKE  PONTCHARTRAIN, 


CATTLE  RANCHING  IN  TEXAS. 

5.  Texas.  —  Texas,  the  largest  state  in  the  Union,  is  engaged 
in  stock-raising  and  agriculture.  The  chief  staples  are  corn, 
cotton,  cattle,  and  wool. 

6.  Chief  Cities. —  Galveston,  the  largest  city,  has  an  ex- 
tensive cotton-trade,  and  is  the  port  through  which  nearly  all 
the  exports  and  imports  of  the  state  pass.  Houston  is  a  flour- 
ishing city  and  important  railroad  center,  with  a  large  internal 
trade.     Austin  is  the  capital. 

7.  Indian  Territory.  —  Indian  Territory  is  a  section  of  coun- 
try set  apart  by  the  government  of  the  United  States  for  the 
home  of  various  peaceable  tribes  of  Indians.  It  has  no  organ- 
ized government. 

8.  Tahlequah,  the  capital  of  the  Cherokee  nation,  is  the  chief 
town  of  the  territory. 


SOUTHERN   STATES:    WESTERN   DIVISION. 


45 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES. 


History.  —  "  Louisiana,"  in  the  last  century,  was  the  name  applied  to  an 
extensive  territory  including  the  whole  country  westward  from  the  Missis- 
sippi not  occupied  by  Spain,  and  northward  to  the  southern  boundary  of 
British  America,  —  a  vast  region  then  in  possession  of  France.  In  the  year 
1803,  during  the  administration  of  Jefferson,  this  domain  was  purchased 
from  France  for  fifteen  millions  of 
dollars.  The  Slate  of  Louisiana  was 
organized  in  181 2,  and  all  the  rest  of 
Louisiana  took  the  name  of  "Mis- 
souri." 

Arkansas  was  a  portion  of  the 
territory  of  Louisiana.  In  1819  it 
was  set  off  as  a  distinct  territory. 
and  in  1836  it  was  admitted  as  a 
state. 

Texas,  originally  a  part  of  tin 
Spanish  American  Possessions,  be- 
came a  province  of  Mexico  in  1821. 
A  large  American  immigration  then 
took  place  ;  a  few  years  later  the 
people  declared  their  independence, 
and  in  1836  Texas  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic.  Subsequently,  in 
1845,  Texas,  on  application,  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union. 

Indian  Territory  was  originally  a 
part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and 
embraced  the  whole  territory  of  Mis- 
souri. It  has  been  reduced  to  its 
present  limits  by  the  successive 
formation  of  states  and  territories. 

Names. —  Louisiana  was  so 
named  after  the  French  king  Louis 
XIV.  The  state  of  Arkansas  is 
called  after  the  river  of  the  same 
name.  Texas  is  called  after  an  Indian  tribe  of  that  name.  Indian  Territory 
is  so  called  because  tribes  of  Indians  are  settled  there. 

Texas.  —  From  its  size  alone  Texas  is  noteworthy  above  all  the  other 
states  of  the  Union.  It  extends  through  more  than  ten  degrees  of  latitude, 
and  twelve  degrees  of  longitude,  exceeding  in  area  either  France  or  the 
German  Empire.  In  fact,  both  as  regards  extent  of  territory  and  abundance 
and  variety  of  resources,  Texas  is  an  empire  in  itself.  It  has  the  finest 
facihties  for  agriculture,  producing  all  the  cereals,  together  with  cotton, 
sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  and  semi-tropical  fruits.  It  raises  more  beef-cattle 
than  any  other  state,  having,  by  the  census  of  1870,  over  three  million 
head.  Immense  stock-ranches,  having  herds  of  several  thousand  cattle  and 
horses,  are  common  in  this  state.     Great  attention  is  given  to  sheep- raising. 


In  addition  to  the  interests  already  developed,  Texas  has  many  other 
resources,  and  vast  capabilities  of  future  growth.  There  is  an  abundance 
of  most  valuable  timber,  and  great  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  salt,  and  other 
useful  minerals.  These  attractions  draw  a  superior  class  of  emigrants  from 
other  states,  as  also  from  Germany  and  other  European  countries. 

Indian  Territory.  —  Indian  Terri- 
tory is  divided  into  various  reserva- 
tions, the  most  important  of  which 
are  (see  map,  p.  43)  those  of  the 
Cherokees,  Chickasaws,  Choctaws, 
Creeks,  Seminoles,  and  Wachitas. 
Most  of  these  and  the  other  tribes 
have  at  various  periods  been  removed 
from  different  parts  of  the  Union  to 
their  present  locations  in  Indian  Ter- 
ritory. 1  he  Indian  population  (about 
60,000)  is  nearly  equally  divided  be- 
tween those  that  are  settled  on  the 
reservations,  or  at  agencies,  and 
nomadic  tribes.  It  has  been  the  aim 
of  the  United  States  to  settle  the 
various  tribes  upon  separate  reser- 
vations, where  they  may  be  free  from 
the  encroachments  of  the  whites, 
and  under  the  general  superintend- 
ence and  protection  of  the  govern- 
ment. Agents  are  appointed  by  the 
President  to  represent  the  United 
States ;  but  each  tribe  has  its  own 
internal  government.  Several  of  the 
tribes,  as  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws, 
and  Creeks,  have  made  considerable 
progress  in  civilization  :  they  till  the 
soil,  raise  cattle  and  horses,  have 
schools,  and  have  also  booksi^nd 
newspapers  printed  in  their  own  language. 

The  American  Bison.  —  The  American  bison,  commonly  but  wrongly 
called  the  buffalo,  ranges  from  northern  Texas  and  Indian  Territory  north- 
ward through  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Dakota.  These  animals  migrate  from 
north  to  south,  and  from  south  to  north,  according  to  the  season  When 
traveling,  they  move  in  vast,  solid  columns  of  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands.  Many  tribes  of  Indians  are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  the 
bison  for  food,  clothing,  and  dwellings.  The  use  of  the  dressed  hides  ol 
the  bison  as  robes  has  caused  a  prodigious  slaughter  oi  these  anmials,  so 
that  they  are  rapidly  diminishing  in  number.  Originally  they  ranged  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  North  America;  but  they  are  now  confined  to  The 
Plains. 


NOMAOIC  INDIANS. 


HERDS    OF   BISON. 


46 


CENTRAL   STATES:    EASTERN   DIVISION. 


CENTRAL    STATES:    EASTERN    DIVISION. 


VIEW   OF    CHICAGO. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE  MAP. 

I.  QUESTIONS   BY   STATES. 

The  Sefition.  —  How  many  and  what  states  in  this  section  ?  What  natu- 
ral boundary  has  this  section  on  the  north?  On  the  south  ?  On  the  west.' 
What  country  north-east  of  this  section .'  Ans.  The  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  do  the  states  com- 
prising this  section  extend  ?  What  is  the  greatest  length  of  this  section  ? 
(Measure  on  the  scale  of  miles.)  When  it  is  noon  at  Washington,  what 
time  is  it  at  Cincinnati  and  Lansing?  At  Chicago?  At  St.  Paul?  Name 
eight  cities  near  the  fortieth  parallel.  Which  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  wholly 
within  this  section?  What  mountains  in  the  north-western  part?  To  what 
systems  do  all  the  rivers  of  this  section  belong?  Ans.  To  the  Mississippi 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  systems. 

Michigan.  —  Between  what  lakes  is  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan 
situated  ?  The  lower  peninsula  ?  What  large  island  in  Lake  Superior 
belongs  to  Michigan?  What  bay  in  Lake  Superior ?  What  river  connects 
Lake  Superior  with  Lake  Huron?  What  strait  connects  Lake  Michigan 
with  Lake  Huron  ?  What  two  bays  in  Lake  Michigan?  In  Lake  Huron? 
By  what  bodies  of  water  is  Lake  Huron  connected  with  Lake  Erie  ? 
What  mountain-range  in  the  upper  peninsula?  What  rocks?  What  five 
rivers  flow  into  Lake  Michigan  ?  What  two  into  Lake  Huron  ?  Which 
city  is  the  capital?  What  two  cities  on  Saginaw  River?  What  city  on 
Grand  River?  On  Detroit  River?  What  two  important  places  west  of 
Detroit  ? 

Ohio.  —  What  natural  boundary  has  Ohio  on  the  north  ?  On  the  south  ? 
On  which  of  the  Middle  States,  and  on  which  of  the  Southern  States,  does 
Ohio  border?  What  state  on  the  west?  On  the  north?  Which  part  of 
the  state  is  hilly?  Into  what  body  of  water  do  the  streams  in  the  northern 
part  flow?  What  are  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  in  this  state? 
Which  city  is  the  capital?  On  what  meridian  is  it?  What  large  place  is 
nearly  on  the  same  meridian?  What  three  large  cities  on  Lake  Erie? 
What  two  cities  west  of  Columbus?  What  large  city  in  the  south-west? 
What  place  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio  and  Muskingum  Rivers  possesses 
peculiar  historical  interest?     (See  Supplementary  Notes,  p.  49.) 

Indiana What  natural  boundary  has   Indiana  on  the  north?     On  the 

south  ?  Wh-it  river  crosses  the  state  ?  Of  what  is  it  a  tributary  ?  What 
are  the  principal  branches  of  the  Wabash?  By  what  artificial  means  are 
the  waters  of  Lake  Erie  connected  with  the   Mississippi   River  system? 


Which  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  is  the  most  important  city  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  state  ?  What  two  cities  on  the  Wabash  ?  What  two 
on  the  Ohio  ? 

Illinois.  —  What  natural  boundary  has  Illinois  on  the  north-east?  On  the 
south  ?  On  the  west  ?  What  partial  natural  boundary  on  the  east  ?  What 
five  states  border  on  Illinois?  How  many  miles  of  coast  on  Lake  Michigan 
has  this  state?  (Measure  on  the  scale  of  miles.)  What  are  the  three  prin- 
cipal tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  in  this  state  ?  What  water  connection 
is  there  between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi  ?  What  are  the  prin- 
cipal branches  of  the  Wabash  in  this  state?  Which  city  is  the  capital? 
What  great  city  on  Lake  Michigan?  What  city  south-west  of  Chicago? 
What  is  the  largest  place  in  the  north-central  part  of  the  state?  What 
city  on  the  Illinois  River?  Wliat  city  north-west  o^  Peoria?  What  city 
south-east  of  Peoria?  What  city  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio  and  IVIissis- 
sippi  rivers  ? 

Wisconsin.  —  What  natural  boundary  has  Wisconsin  on  the  north-west? 
On  the  east?  The  west?  What  islands  in  Lake  Superior  belong  to 
Wisconsin?  What  mountains  in  the  northern  part?  What  bay  in  the 
eastern  part  ?  What  large  lakes  in  the  eastern  part  ?  What  are  the  three 
principal  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  River  in  this  state?  Which  city  is 
the  capital?  What  city  south-east  of  Madison?  What  cities  on  Lake 
Michigan  ?     On  Winnebago  Lake  ?     What  city  on  the  Mississippi  ? 


11.  REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

States.  — //ow  bounded?     What  is  the  capital? 

Michigan?     Ohio?     Indiana?     Illinois?     Wisconsin? 

Bays.  —  Where  is  it  ? 

Keweenaw?     Whitefish?     Thunder?     Saginaw?     Green? 

Ri\/ers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction,  through  what  states, 
and  into  what  body  of  water,  docs  it  flow  ? 

Muskegon?  Maumee?  Scioto?  Great  Miami?  Wabash?  Illinois? 
Rock?     Wisconsin? 

Lakes.  —  Where  situated?    By  what  drained? 

St.  Clair?     Horicon  ?     Winnebago?     Peoria? 

Cities.  —  In  what  part  of  what  state  ?    How  situated? 

Lansing?  Columbus?  Indianapolis?  Springfield?  Madison?  Detroit? 
Cincinnati  ?  Chicago  ?  Milwaukee  ?  Grand  Rapids  ?  Cleveland  ?  Evans- 
ville  ?     Quincy  ?     Racine  ? 


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48 


CENTRAL   STATES:    EASTERN   DIVISION. 


II. 

DESCRIPTION. 


Mining.  —  Coal  is  very  widely  distributed  throughout  this  section,  and  in 
inexhaustible  quantities.  There  are  valuable  iron  ores  in  Ohio  and  Michi- 
gan. The  salt  deposits  of  Michigan  are  of  unsurpassed  richness;  lead  is 
mined  in  north-western  Illinois  and  southern  Wisconsin  ;  and  the  Lake 
Superior  copper-mines  are  the  richest  in  the  world. 

Commerce.  —  The  means  of  communication  afforded  by  nature  are  the 
numerous  large  navigable  streams,  especially  the  Mississippi  and  its  tribu- 
taries, which  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Great  Lakes,  which,  with 
the  St.  Lawrence,  give  communication  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  These 
splendid  natural  commercial  facilities  are  further  increased  by  a  network  of 
railroads  built  by  the  enterprise  of  the  Western  people.  The  principal 
exports  are  wheat,  flour,  corn,  pork,  bacon,  beef,  cheese,  wool,  and  copper. 


III. 


THE   STATES. 

REFERENCE   TABLE. 


STATES. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

STATES. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

Ohio 

Indiana  .... 
Illinois  .... 

41,060 

36.350 
56,650 

3,198,062 
1,978,30' 
3,077,87' 

Wisconsin  .     .     . 
Michigan     .     .     . 

56,040 

58.9' 5 

1.315497 
".636,937 

STREET   SCENE   IN   CINCINNATI. 


1.  Situation. — This  group  of  states  is  situated  north  of  the 
Ohio  River,  and  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  lies  wholly  in  the 
Central  Plain,  or  Mississippi  Valley. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  surface  is  generally  level  or  rolling  prairie- 
land  ;  but  there  are  two  hilly  regions,  —  the  one  towards  the 
Ohio,  the  other  towards  Lake  Superior. 

The  larger  part  of  Ohio  consists  of  a  low  and  broken  table-land,  form- 
ing the  western  slope  and  foot-hills  of  the  Appalachian  system. 
The  highlands  of  northern  Wisconsin,  and  the  upper  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  are  an  extension  of  the  Height  of  Land.  Wisconsin  and 
Michigan  possess  extensive  white-pine  forests. 

3.  Drainage.  —  The  rivers  in  these  states  belong  to  the 
Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence  systems.  Four  of  the  five  Great 
Lakes,  namely,  Erie,  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superior,  lie  in  the 
northern  part  of  this  section. 

Lake  Superior  is  six  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  nine  hun- 
dred feet  deep ;  it  has  an  area  of  thirty-two  thousand  square  miles,  i 
being  large  enough  to  take  in  the  whole  of  the  state  of  Maine  or 
the  island  of  Ireland.  Lake  Michigan,  about  fifty  feet  lower  than 
Lake  Superior,  is  three-fourths  as  large,  and  not  quite  so  deep. 
Lake  Huron  is  two-thirds  as  large  as  Lake  Superior,  and  nearly 
twice  as  deep.  Lake  Erie  is  one-third  as  large  as  Lake  Superior, 
and  is  very  shallow,  being  less  than  one  hundred  feet  deep. 

4.  Climate. — The  climate  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Atlantic 
States  in  the  same  latitude,  —  the  summers  are  hot,  the  winters 
mild  in  the  southern,  and  cold  in  the  northern  part. 

5.  Productions  and  Pursuits.  —  The  leading  pursuits  are 
agriculture  and  grazing;  but  manufacturing,  mining,  and  com- 
merce are  all  great  and  important  industries. 

Agriculture.  —  The  broad  and  fertile  prairies  are  admirably  adapted  both 
for  tillage  and  grazing.  Of  wheat,  corn,  wool,  and  live-stock,  the  quantity 
produced  is  greater  than  in  any  other  part  of  our  country  of  equal  extent. 

Manufacturing.  —  Manufacturing,  though  in  importance  secondary  to 
agriculture,  is  pursued  on  a  great  and  growing  scale.  The  principal  articles 
produced  are  flour,  agricultural  implements,  machinery,  and  cotton  and 
woolen  goods. 


1.  Ohio  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  progressive  of  the 
Central  States,  and,  in  the  amount  and  variety  of  its  manufac- 
tures, is  the  first  state  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 

2.  Chief  Cities.  —  Cincinnati  the  metropolis,  and  the  largest 
city  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  is  a  great  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial point.  Cleveland,  Sandusky,  and  Toledo,  all  lake  ports, 
are  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  centers.  Colum- 
bus is  the  capital. 

3.  Indiana. — The  natural  advantages  of  Indiana  consist  in 
its  fertile  soil,  its  extensive  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  and  the 
facilities  for  communication  afforded  by  its  rivers.  The  pros- 
perity of  the  state  is  based  on  its  agricultural,  mining,  and 
manufacturing  interests. 


INDIANA  SCENES. 


CENTRAL  STATES:   EASTERN   DIVISION. 


WISCONSIN    SCENES. 


4.  Chief  Cities.  —  Indianapolis,  the  capital  and  largest  city, 
is  the  center  of  numerous  railroads,  and  is  an  active  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  point.  Evansville,  Fort  Wayne,  and 
Terre  Haute,  rank  next  in  population,  and  are  important  manu- 
facturing and  trading  cities. 

5.  Illinois.  —  Illinois  is  one  of  the  most  populous  and  wealthy 
of  the  Central  States,  leading  all  others  in  the  value  of  its  agri- 
cultural productions,  and  commanding  the  trade  both  of  the 
Mississippi  River  and  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

6.  Chief  Cities.  —  Chicago  is  the  commercial  metropolis,  and 
the  largest  city  on  the  northern  lakes.  It  has  an  extensive  lake 
commerce,  is  the  center  of  the  railroad  system  of  the  surround- 
ing states,  and  ranks  as  the  greatest  wheat,  corn,  and  live-stock 
market  in  the  Union. 

In  commercial  importance  Chicago  ranks  next  to  New  York.  More 
than  10,000  miles  of  railroad  are  directly  tributary  to  Chicago,  and 
350  trains  enter  and  leave  daily,  giving  700  arrivals  and  departures. 
Its  commerce  exceeds  $500,000,000  annually.  It  is  the  greatest 
grain-market  in  the  world.  The  grain  is  received  and  shipped  in 
bulk.  It  is  lifted  into  elevators  from  railroad-cars  by  buckets  run- 
ning on  an  endless  chain,  and  operated  by  powerful  steam-machinery, 
and  is  emptied  through  spouts  into  the  holds  of  vessels.  There  are 
twenty-four  of  these  immense  elevator-warehouses,  the  total  capacity 
of  all  being  over  20,000,000  bushels. 


Among  other  important  cities  are  Quincy,  Peoria,  and  Bloom- 
ington.     Springfield  is  the  capital. 

7.  Wisconsin.  —  Extensive  forests  in  the  north,  rich  deposits 
of  lead  and  iron,  a  fertile  soil,  and  great  facilities  for  commerce, 
form  the  principal  natural  advantages  of  this  state.  The  lead- 
ing industries  are  agriculture,  mining,  lumbering,  and  manufac- 
turing. 

8.  Chief  Cities.  —  Milwaukee  is  the  commercial  metropo- 
lis. It  is  a  great  wheat-market,  and  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  flourishing  cities  of  the  North-West.  Fond  du  Lac, 
Oshkosh,  and  Racine  come  next  in  importance.  Madison  is 
the  capital. 

9.  Michigan. — Michigan  consists  of  two  peninsulas.  The 
upper  peninsula  is  rugged,  and  in  parts  mountainous,  with  a 
generally  sterile  soil ;  but  it  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  rich 
veins  of  copper  and  iron,  and  its  heavy  pine-forests.  The 
lower  peninsula  has  a  generally  level  surface,  a  fine  climate, 
and  a  fertile  soil.  The  leading  industries  arc  lumbering,  salt- 
making,  farming,  fruit-raising,  and  manufacturing,  in  the  lower 
peninsula ;  and  copper  and  iron  mining  in  the  upper  peninsula. 

10.  Chief  Cities. —  Detroit  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  is  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  in  foreign  and 
domestic  commerce.  Grand  Rapids,  and  East  Saginaw,  and 
Saginaw  City,  rank  next  in  importance.  Lansing  is  the 
capital. 


f^UPPLEMENTARY   NOTES. 


History.  —  In  1787  Congress  organized  the  vast  u"inhabited  region  north 
of  the  Ohio  into  a  territory  called  the  North-west  Territory,  and  decreed 
that  a  certain  number  of  states  should  be  formed  from  it  when  each  should 
have  a  population  of  60,000. 

The  first  state  carved  out  of  the  North-west  Territory  was  Ohio,  admitted 
into  the  Union  in  1802.  Its  first  white  population  consisted  of  a  company 
of  New-England  pioneers  under  the  guidance  of  Gen.  Rufus  Putnam ;  and 
the  first  settlement  was  made  at  Marietta,  so  aamed  after  Marie  Antoinette. 

Indiana  was  originally  a  part  of  the  North-west  Territory.  When  Ohio 
became  a  state,  all  the  remainder  of  the  North-west  Territory  received  the 
name  of  Indiana  Territory;  and  from  a  part  of  this  territory  the  State  of 
Indiana  was  created  in  i8l6.  Illinois  was  first  a  part  of  the  North-west 
Territory,   afterwards    of    Indiana   Territory,  and   was   admitted   into   the 


Union  in  1818.  Wisconsin  was  penetrated  by  the  early  French  missiona- 
ries, traders,  and  trappers,  over  two  hundred  years  ago.  The  first  perm.v 
nent  settlement  was  made  at  Green  Bay  in  1745.  Wisconsin  was  first 
part  of  the  North-west  Territory,  then  part  of  Indiana  Territory,  then  of 
Illinois  Territory,  and  afterwards  of  Michigan  Territory.  In  1836  it  became 
a  separate  territory,  and  in  1848  was  admitted  as  a  state.  Michigan  was  first 
a  part  of  the  North-west  Territory,  and  afterwards  of  Indiana  Territory. 
In  1805  it  became  a  separate  territory,  and  in  1837  was  admitted  as  a  state. 

Names.  —  Ohio  was  named  from  the  Ohio  River,  which  in  the  Indian 
language  signifies  "river  of  blood."  Indiana  is  a  name  formed  from  the 
word  Indian.  Illinois  took  its  name  from  the  Illinois  River  and  tribe  of 
Indians.  Wisconsin  took  its  name  from  the  Wisconsin  River.  Michigan 
took  its  name  from  Lake  Michigan. 


50 


CENTRAL   STATES:    WESTERN    DIVISION. 


CENTRAL    STATES:    \VESTERN    DIVISION. 


VIEW  OF  ST.   LOUIS. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

I.  QUESTIONS    BY   STATES. 

The  Section.  —  What  five  states  in  this  section  ?  What  territory  ? 
What  parallel  and  what  natural  boundaries  separate  it  from  Canada  ?  What 
natural  boundary  on  the  east  ?  What  hills  in  the  western  part  ?  What 
plateau  in  the  north-west  ?     What  elevation  in  the  north-east  ? 

Minnesota. — What  elevation  in  the  northern  part  of  Minnesota?  In 
what  direction  do  the  streams  flow  from  the  Height  of  Land  ?  What  lakes 
on  the  northern  border?  Which  of  the  Great  Lakes  on  the  eastern  border? 
What  two  lakes  north  of  the  Height  of  Land  ?  What  five  lakes  south  of 
the  Height  of  Land?  What  two  lakes  on  the  western  border?  What  lake 
on  the  eastern  border  ?  What  lake  is  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  ?  What 
are  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  in  or  bordering  this  state? 
Which  city  is  the  capital?  What  two  cities  on  the  Mississippi?  What 
city  on  Minnesota  River?  Wliat  port  near  the  western  extremity  of  Lake 
Superior? 

Iowa.  ^  What  natur.il  boundary  has  Iowa  on  the  east?  On  the  west? 
Which  part  of  the  state  is  hilly?  What  river  crosses  the  state?  What 
other  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  in  this  state?  Which  city  is  the  capital? 
On  what  river  are  most  of  the  large  cities  ?  Name  them.  What  city  on 
the  Missouri  ? 

Missouri. — What  natural  boundary  has  Missouri  on  the  east?  What 
mountains  in  the  south?  What  mountains  in  the  south-west?  What  two 
mountain  summits  in  the  eastern  part?  What  river  crosses  the  state? 
What  is  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Missouri  from  the  south?  Which 
city  is  the  capital  ?  What  large  city  on  the  Mississippi,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Missouri  ?  What  city  on  the  Mississippi  north  of  the  Missouri  ? 
What  city  on  the  Missouri  where  that  river  enters  the  state  ?  What  city 
on  the  Missouri  north  of  Kansas  City  ? 

Kansas. — What  parallel  is  the  northern  boundary  of  Kansas?  What 
parallel  is  the  southern  boundary?    What  river  crosses  the  south-we.stem 


part  of  the  state?  What  river  north  of  the  Arkansas?  Of  what  river  is  it 
a  tributary?  What  are  the  principal  branches  of  the  Kansas  River  in  this 
state?  In  what  part  of  the  state  are  most  of  the  cities  and  towns  ?  What 
two  cities  on  the  Kansas  River?  Which  is  the  capital?  What  two  cities 
on  the  Missouri  ?  What  city  in  the  south-eastern  part?  What  city  on  the 
Arkansas  River? 

Nebraska.  —  What  parallels  form  the  southern  boundary  of  Nebraska? 
What  natural  boundary  on  the  east  ?  What  branch  of  the  Missouri  River 
crosses  the  northern  part ?  What  river  crosses  the  state?  Of  what  river 
is  it  a  tributary  ?  What  city  is  the  capital?  What  cities  on  the  Missouri 
River?     What  city  on  the  Platte  River? 

Dakota.  —  What  country  north  of  Dakota?  What  states  east?  What 
state  south?  What  territories  west?  What  mountains  in  the  south-western 
part  of  the  territory  ?  What  plateau  in  the  central  part  ?  What  lakes  in 
the  northern  part  ?  What  Indian  tribes  have  a  Reservation  in  the  north- 
western part?  What  river  crosses  the  territory?.  What  tributary  of  the 
Missouri  in  the  southern  part  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  place  on  the 
Big  Sioux  River?     What  United-States  forts  on  Missouri  River? 

n.  REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

States.  —  //ota  bounded f     What  is  the  capital? 

Minnesota?    Iowa?    Missouri?    Kansas?    Nebraska?    Dakota  Territory? 

Mountains.  —  Where  are  they  ? 

Black  Hills?  Height  of  Land?  Pilot  Knob?  Iron?  Ozark?  Pea 
Ridge? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction,  through  what  states, 
and  into  what  body  of  water,  does  it  flow  ?    (See  Map  of  United  States.) 

Mississippi?  Missouri?  Minnesota?  Red?  Des  Moines?  Platte? 
Kansas  ? 

Cities.  — In  what  part  of  what  state  is  it?    How  situated? 

St.  Paul  ?  Des  Moines  ?  Jeflerson  City  ?  Topeka  ?  Lincoln  ?  Yank- 
ton ?  Minneapolis  ?  Dubuque  ?  Davenport  ?  St.  Louis  ?  Lawrence  ? 
Omaha  ?     Sioux  Falls  ? 


J 


10]  Longitude  99       West      from        97         Greenwich  95 


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WESTERN  DIVISION 


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10»       Local    Time  A.M.   toTien      10«        Jfoon   on   the  Meridian       IQW of   Wavhinffton 


52 


CENTRAL  STATES:    WESTERN   DIVISION. 


II. 

DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Situation. — This  group  includes  the  states  of  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  with  Dakota  Territory. 

The  boundary  separating  this  section  from  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
is  formed  by  the  49th  parallel,  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  Rainy  River, 
Rainy  Lake,  Crooked  Lake,  and  Pigeon  River. 

2.  The  surface  is  generally  level.  The  western  part  is  in 
the  Plains ;  the  eastern,  in  the  low  plain  of  the  Mississippi,  to 
which  the  ground  falls  by  a  slight  slope  from  the  foothills  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  only  considerable  elevations  are  the  short  ranges  and  knobs  of 
the  Ozark  Mountains  in  Missouri,  and  the  Black  Hills  of  Dakota. 

3.  Drainage.  —  Most  of  the  rivers  of  this  section  are  tribu- 
taries of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Mississippi  rises  in  Lake 
Itasca  in  northern  Minnesota,  on 
the  Height  of  Land.  Issuing  from 
Lake  Itasca  as  a  slender  rivulet 
(from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  width), 
it  receives  the  waters  of  various 
lakes  and  small  strfcams,  and  is 
swelled  by  the  two  main  tributaries, 
—  the  Minnesota  and  St.  Croix. 
It  is  navigable  for  steamboats  be- 
low the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

4.  Climate.  — The  climate 
of  this  region  presents  great 
extremes  :  the  summers  are 
warm  ;  the  winters  exceed- 
ingly severe,  especially  in  the 
northern  part. 

5.  Productions  and  Pur- 
suits. —  The  principal  pur- 
suits are  agriculture,  stock- 
raising,  and  mining. 

Agriculture.  —  The  soil  of  the 
river-valleys  is  exceedingly  fertile. 
The  staple  products  are  corn, 
wheat,  hay,  oats,  hemp,  and  pota- 
toes. Stock-raising  is  largely  car- 
ried on. 

Mining.  —  In  the  number,  extent,  and  value  of  its  mineral  deposits, 
Missouri  surpasses  every  other  state.  Those  most  largely  mined  are  iron, 
lead,  and  coal.  Iowa  has  inexhaustible  fields  of  bituminous  coal,  and  is 
rich  in  lead.  Kansas  has  abundant  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and  salt.  Dakota 
has  very  rich  and  productive  gold  mines. 

Commerce.  —  These  states  are  crossed  by  many  navigable  rivers  and  by 
numerous  railroads,  which  connect  with  trunk  lines  east  of  the  Mississippi. 


III. 

THE   STATES. 
REFERENCE   TABLE. 


FARMING   IN   THE  GREAT  WEST. 


STATES. 

Area  in 

Sq.  Miles. 

1880. 

Population 
in  1880. 

STATES. 

Area  in 

Sq.  Milei. 

1880. 

Population 
In  1880. 

Minnesota  .     .     . 

Iowa 

Mi.«souri     .    .    . 

83,365 
56,025 

69,415 

780,773 

1,624,6;  5 

2,168,380 

Kansas   .... 
Nebraska    .     .     . 
Dakota  Territory, 

82,080 

77,505 
148,450 

996,096 
452,402 

'35,i77 

1.  Minnesota.  —  Minnesota  occupies  the  central  part  of 
North  America,  and  includes  the  Height  of  Land  which 
divides  the  Arctic  Plain  from  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  leading  industries  are  agriculture  (the  chief  products  being 
wheat  and  oats),  lumbering,  and  manufacturing,  the  principal 
articles  being  sawed  lumber  and  flour. 

Minnesota,  together  with  Wisconsin  and  the  upper  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  forms  an  extensive  undulating  table-land,  with  an  average 
height  of  about  1,000  feet.  In  north-western  Minnesota  the  sur- 
face reaches  a  height  of  1,700  feet.  This  elevation,  known  as  the 
"  Height  of  Land  "  (the  highest  region  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  Hudson  Bay),  forms  a  watershed  which  sends  out  streams  to  all 
points  of  the  compass. 

2.  Chief  Cities.  —  St.  Paul  is  the  capital.  Minneapolis,  the 
largest  city,  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  possesses  unlimited 
water-power,   and    is    noted  for  the   manufacture  of  flour   and 

lumber. 

3.  Iowa.  —  Iowa  possesses 
a  fertile  prairie  soil,  and  rich 
deposits  of  coal  and  lead. 
Agriculture  is  the  leading 
industry^  but  lead  and  coal 
mining  are  extensively  car- 
ried on. 

The  coal-field  of  Iowa  embraces 
an  area  of  several  thousand  square 
miles,  and  is  practically  inex- 
haustible. The  coal  is  bituminous 
and  of  excellent  quality.  The 
lead-mines  in  the  Galena  lime- 
stone have  been  worked  for  many 
years. 

4.  Chief  Cities.— Dubuque 
and  Davenport,  Burlington 
and  Keokuk,  all  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, are  important  cities. 
Des  Moines  is  the  capital. 

5.  Missouri.  —  Missouri  is 
the  most  populous  state  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  has 
an  area  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  New  England. 

Extensive  iron-mining  is 
carried  on  in  the  section  south  of  St.  Louis,  and  the  mining 
of  lead  and  coal  is  an  important  industry.  Agriculture  is  a 
leading  occupation,  and  great  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  rye,  to- 
bacco, hemp,  and  grapes  are  raised  in  the  prairie  section. 
The  manufacturing  interest  is  large  and  increasing. 

This  state  possesses  the  navigation  of  the  two  greatest  rivers  in  the 
United  States.  By  means  of  the  Mississippi,  which  forms  the 
entire  eastern  boundary,  the  state  has  water  communication  with 
the  most  northern  part  of  the  Union;  by  means  of  the  Missouri 
River  internal  communication  is  extended  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
These  two  great  channels  are  the  final  reservoirs  of  all  the  streams 
of  the  state. 

6.  Chief  Cities.  —  St.  Louis,  the  largest  city  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  occupies  a  commanding  position  for  domes- 
tic and  foreign  commerce,  and  is  largely  engaged  in  iron-manu- 
factures. A  magnificent  steel  bridge  crosses  the  Mississippi 
River  at  this  point.  Kansas  City  and  St.  Joseph  are  the  places 
next  in  importance.     Jefferson  City  is  the  capital. 


CENTRAL   STATES:    WESTERN   DIVISION. 


53 


FALLS   OF  ST.    ANTHONY   AND    LUMBERING    SCENE. 

7.  Kansas.  —  The  natural  wealth  of  Kansas  consists  of  a 
fertile  soil,  abundant  pasturage  for  stock,  rich  deposits  of  coal, 
and  ready  means  of  communication.  The  leading  industries 
are  agriculture  in  the  eastern  section,  and  stock-raising  on  the 
great  grassy  prairies  to  the  west. 

The  prairies  are  covered  with  a  variety  of  nutritious  grasses,  which 
last  all  winter,  drying  into  hay  on  the  ground,  and  supporting  vast 
herds  of  beef-cattle,  which  require  no  housing. 

8.  Chief  Cities.  —  Leavenworth  is  the  largest  city  in  Kansas. 
The  places  next  in  importance  are  Lawrence,  and  Topeka  the 
capital. 

9.  Nebraska  resembles  Kansas  in  its  natural  wealth,  and  in 

the  occupations  of  the  people. 

The  raising  of  corn,  wheat,  and  other  cereals,  and  fruit-growing,  are  car- 
ried on  with  great  success  in  the  eastern  section  ;  beef-cattle  and  other 
live-stock  are  raised  in  great  numbers  in  the  western  grazing  regions. 
Its  cheap  and  fertile  lands,  together  with  the  ready  means  of  com- 
munication, are  rapidly  making  Nebraska  a  great  and  populous  state. 

10.  Chief  Cities.  —  Omaha  is  the  largest  city.  Lincoln  is 
the  capital. 

1 1.  Dakota.  —  Agriculture,  stock-raising,  and  mining  are  the 
chief  occupations  of  the  people 
of  Dakota  Territory. 

This  territory  is  the  home  of 
the  Sioux,  or  Dakota,  and  the 
Mandan  tribes  of  Indians. 
Vast  herds  of  buffalo,  elk. 
deer,  and  antelope  range  over 
the  western  portion.  The 
"  Bad  Lands  "  are  an  exten- 
sive arid  tract  in  the  south- 
west. But  the  river  bot- 
toms are  exceedingly  fertile, 
and  the  farm  represented 
on  the  previous  page  is  in 
Dakota. 

12.  Capital.  — Yankton    is 
the  capital  and  largest  place. 


WINTER  TRAVEL  ON  TnE  UNION  PACIFIC  RAILROAD. 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES." 

History.  —  Minnesota  was  first  explored  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  two 
hundred  years  ago,  and  was  a  part  of  the  great  Louisiana  purchase.  It  was 
organized  as  a  territory  in  1849,  and  became  a  state  in  1858. 

Iowa  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  It  was  organized 
as  a  separate  territory  in  1838,  and  admitted  as  a  state  in  1846. 

Missouri  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and,  when 
the  present  state  of  Louisiana  was  admitted,  the  remainder  of  the  ex- 
tensive domain  was  erected  into  the  territory  of  Missouri.  The  state 
was  formed  from  a  part  of  this  territory,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
in  1820. 

Kansas  was  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  It  first  came 
prominently  into  notice  in  1854,  when  a  law  was  passed  organizing  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Territory,  and  leaving  to  "popular  sovereignty"  the 
question  whether  it  should  be  a  free  or  a  slave  state.  The  friends  of  both 
sides  poured  into  this  territory,  and  for  several  years  its  soil  was  the  scene 
of  lawlessness  and  bloodshed ;  but  the  antislavery  party  triumphed,  and 
Kansas  was  admitted  as  a  free  state,  January  30,  i86i. 

Nebraska,  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  was,  jointly  with 
Kansas,  organized  into  a  territory  in  1854.  When  Kansas  became  a  state 
in  1861  Nebraska  remained  for  some  years  a  territory,  but  finally  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  in  1867. 

Dakota,  originally  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  became  a  part  of 
Minnesota  Territory,  which  was  organized  in   1849.      It  was  organized  as 
a  territory  in   i86i,.but  it  then  included  the  present   territories  of  Mon- 
tana and  Wyoming.     The  first  per- 
manent settlements  of  whites  were 
made  in  1859. 

Names.  —  Minnesota  is  called 
after  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
signifying  "cloudy  river."  Iowa  is 
called  after  the  river  of  the  same 
name  :  it  is  the  French  form  of  an 
Indian  word  signifying  "the  sleepy 
ones,"  the  name  of  an  Indian  tribe. 
Missouri  takes  its  name  from  its 
chief  river,  signifying  "muddy 
water."  Kansas,  meaning  "smoky 
water,"  Nebraska,  meaning  "water 
valley,"  and  Dakota,  signifying 
"leagued,"— the  common  name  of 
the  confederated  Sioux  tribes, —  are 
all  named  from  Indian  tribes  iden- 
tified with  their  history. 


54 


THE   PACIFIC    STATES   AND   TERRITORIES. 


PACIFIC    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


sa^-SSa^afa 


I. 

QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

I.  QUESTIONS   BY   STATES. 

The  Section.  —  What  are  the  states  and  territories  of  this  section?  A>/s. 
They  are  the  territories  of  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  New  Mexico,  and  the 
state  of  Colorado,  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  division  ;  the  territories  of  Idaho, 
Utah,  and  Arizona,  and  the  state  of  Nevada,  in  the  Great  Plateau;  and 
the  states  of  California  and  Oregon,  with  Washington  Territory  and  Alaska, 
in  the  Pacific  Coast  division. 

Montana.  —  What  mountains  in  the  western  part  of  Montana  ?  What 
river  crosses  the  northern  part?  What  large  branch  of  the  Missouri 
crosses  the  southern  part?    What  is  the  capital?        • 

Wyoming.  —  Wliat  park  in  the  north-western  part?  Name  the  moun- 
tain-ranges.    What  river  in  the  soutli-eastern  part?     What  is  the  capital? 

Colorado.  —  What  mountains  in  Colorado?  What  four  "parks"  are  in 
these  mountains?  What  peak  in  the  central  part  of  the  state?  What 
great  rivers  have  their  source  in  this  state?  What  city  is  the  capital? 
What  towns  south-west  of  Denver? 

New  Mexico.  —  What  river  crosses  New  Mexico?  What  is  the  capital? 
What  place  south-west  of  Santa  Fd? 

Idaho.  —  What  natural  boundary  on  the  north-east  ?  What  tributaries  of 
the  Columbia  cross  the  territory?     What  is  the  capitnl? 

Nevada.  —  What  mountain-ranges  in  tliis  state?  What  lakes?  Do  any 
rivers  cross  it?  What  is  the  capital?  What  place  north  of  Carson 
City? 

Utah.  —  What  mountain-chains  in  Utah  ?  What  large  lake  ?  What  is 
the  capital?     What  place  north  of  Salt  Lake  City? 

Arizona.  —  What  two  rivers  cross  Arizona?     What  is  the  capital? 

California.  —  What  natural  boundary  lias  California  on  the  west?  What 
country  south?  What  mountain-chain  in  the  eastern  part?  What  range 
in  the  western  part?     Name  three  lakes  in  this  state.     What  noted  valley 


south  of  the  thirty-eighth  parallel?  What  two  large  rivers  unite,  and  flow 
into  San  Francisco  Bay  ?  What  strait  ("gate  ")  at  the  entrance  of  this  bay  ? 
What  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  on  the  west  side  of  San  Francisco 
Bay?     On  the  east  side?     What  city  east  of  Oakland?     South? 

Oregon.  —  What  boundary  river  has  Oregon  on  the  north?  On  the  east? 
What  natural  boundary  on  the  west?  What  mountains  extend  through  the 
state  ?     What  is  the  capital  ?     What  city  north  of  Salem  ? 

Washington.  —  What  country  on  the  north  ?  What  natural  boundary  on 
the  west?  On  the  south?  What  cape  projects  from  the  north-western 
part?     What  mountain-peaks  in  this  territory?    What  is  the  capital? 

Alaska.  —  (See  Map  of  North  America.)  What  ocean  north  of  Alaska? 
South?    Sea  west?    What  circle  crosses  Alaska?    What  volcano  in  Alaska? 

II.  REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

States  or  Territories.  —  f/o-u  bounded?     What  is  the  capital? 

Montana?  Wyoming?  Colorado?  New  Mexico?  Idaho?  Nevada? 
Utah?    Arizona?     California?     Oregon?     Washington? 

Capes.  —  From  what  coast  does  it  project  ? 

Point  Conception?     Mendocino?     Flattery? 

mountains.  ■ —  \l  'here  are  they  ? 

Rocky?  Sierra  Nevada?  Coast?  Cascade?  Wahsatch  ?  Uintah? 
Mount  Whitney?     Mount  Hood?     Rainier? 

Rivers.  —  IVhere  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction,  through  what  states 
or  territories,  does  it  flow  ? 

Columbia?  Missouri?  Yellowstone?  Rio  Grande?  Colorado?  Gila? 
Sacramento?     San  Joaquin  ?     Klamath? 

Lakes.  —  Where  situated? 

Great  Salt?     Tulare?     Pyramid?     Tahoe  ? 

Cities.  —  In  ichat  part  of  what  state  is  it  ?    How  situated? 

Helena?  Cheyenne?  Denver?  Santa  Fd?  Boisd  City?  Carson  City? 
Salt  Lake  City  ?  Prescott  ?  Sacramento?  Salem?  Olympia?  Virginia 
City  (Montana)?  Albuquerque?  Idaho  City?  Virginia  City  (Nevada)? 
Ogden  ?     Tucson  ?     San  Francisco  ?     Oakland  ?     Portland  ? 


56 


THE   PACIFIC    STATES   AND   TERRITORIES. 


GEYSERS  AND   FIRE-BASINS    IN   THE    ROCKY   MOUNTAINS. 


II. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS  AND  GREAT  PLATEAU.  — DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Situation.  —  This  group  includes  the  states  and  terri- 
tories of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  of  the  Great  Plateau. 

Colorado  and  Nevada  are  states  ;  Montana,  Wyoming,  New  Mexico, 
Idalio,  Utah,  and  Arizona  are  territories. 

2.  Surface.  —  The  great  natural  feature  of  this  region  is 
the  Rocky  Mountain  system,  the  main  axis  of  which  traverses 
it  in  a  general  south-easterly  direction.  The  Rocky  Mountains 
within  this  section  comprise  several  chains  more  or  less  parallel, 
and  connected  by  numerous  cross  ranges. 

I.  Some  of  the  grandest  scenery  in  the  world  is  found  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Among  the  most  remarkable  localities  are  the  moun- 
tain scenery  and  "  parks  "  of  Colorado,  the  Fire  Hole  Basin,  and 
the  Caflon  of  the  Yellowstone.  The  Fire  Hole  Basin  is  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Madison  River,  one  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Missouri. 
It  contains  many  hundreds  of  boiling  springs  and  spouting  geysers, 
far  exceeding  those  of  Iceland  in  size  and  grandeur.  The  Grand 
Geyser,  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world,  throws  a  stream  of  hot 
water  to  a  height  of  3D0  feet  The  Caflon  of  the  Yellowstone  is  a 
great  mountain-rent,  with  perpendicular  basaltic  walls  from  1,000  to 
2,000  feet  high.  For  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  along  this 
mighty  chasm  the  river  rushes  with  fearful  velocity,  making  in  one 
place  a  leap  of  450  feet,  forming  one  of  the  grandest  of  waterfalls. 
The  rocks  in  many  places  along  the  canon  are  worn  into  fantastic 
shapes,  resembling  ruined  castles  with  minarets  and  spires. 
II.  A  section  of  this  magnificent  mountain-region,  nearly  the  size  of  Con- 
necticut, has  been  set  apart  by  Congress  as  a  great  "  National 
Park."  Within  its  limits  are  not  less  than  ten  thousand  boiling 
springs  and  geysers,  and  many  grand  waterfalls,  deep  cafions,  beau- 
tiful lakes,  and  rugged  mountain-peaks. 

3.  Climate. — This  section  has  a  cool  climate,  owing  to  its 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  also  noted  for  its 
dryness.     This  is  due  to  its  great  distance  from  the  ocean,  the 


rain-clouds  from  which  are  deprived  of  their  moisture  by  the 
intervening  mountains. 

4.  Industries.  —  This  section  is  rich  in  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  and  coal,  and  the  vast  grassy  plains  afford  fine 
pasturage :  hence  mining  and  stock-raising  form  the  leading 
industries  of  the  inhabitants. 

III. 

THE   STATES   AND   TERRITORIES. 
REFERENCE   TABLE. 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  DIVISION. 


STATES  OR  TERRI- 
TORIES. 


Montana  Ter. 
Wyoming  Ter.     . 
Colorado    .    .    . 
AVw  Mexico  Ter. 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 


Population 
in  1880. 


146,080 
97,890 

'03.925 
122,580 


39.' 59 
20,789 

194.327 
119,565 


GREAT  PLATEAU  DIVISION. 


STATES  OR  TERRI- 
TORIES. 


Idaho  Territory  . 
Nevada .  .  .  . 
Utah  Territory  . 
Arizona  Ter.  .     . 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 
in  1880. 


Population 
in  1880. 


84^00 
110,700 

84,970 
113,020 


32,610 
62,266 

143.963 
40,440 


5.  Montana.  —  The  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Montana  are 
extensively  worked,  and  the  mountain  pastures  afford  great  ad- 
vantages for  stock-raising. 

6.  Chief  Places.  —  Helena  is  the  capital  and  largest  town. 
Virginia  City  is  next  in  importance. 

7.  Wyoming.  —  The  principal  industries  of  this  territory 
are  stock-raising  and  the  mining  of  coal  and  gold. 

8.  Chief  Places.  —  Cheyenne,  the  capital,  is  an  important 
railroad  center,  and  a  distributing  point  for  goods  to  all  parts  of 
the  highland  region  north  and  south.  Sherman  Station  (8,000 
feet)  is  the  highest  point  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  crossed  by 
the  Pacific  Railroad. 

9.  Colorado  is  divided  by  the  Rocky  Mountains  into  the 


THE   PACIFIC   STATES   AND   TERRITORIES. 


57 


GREAT    SALT    LAKE 


eastern  section,  which  resembles  Kansas,  and  the  western  sec- 
tion, which  is  a  mountain-plateau  region. 

The  leading  industries  are  gold  and  silver  mining,  largely 
carried  on  in  the  mountains,  and  grazing  and  agriculture  in  the 
eastern  section. 

10.  Chief  Places.  —  Denver  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 
The  many  important  railroad  lines  centering  here  make  it  the 
metropolis  of  an  extensive  region  of  country.  Leadville  ranks 
next  in  population. 

11.  New  Mexico  has  rich  mines,  which  are  being  rapidly 
opened  and  developed.  Stock  raising  is  also  extensively  carried 
on  in  the  valleys.  Santa  Fe  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards 
about  1542,  at  which  time  it  was  an  important  Indian  settle- 
ment. 

12.  Santa  Fe  is  the  capital  and  largest  place. 

13.  Idaho  is  rich  in  gold  and  silver,  and  has  also  extensive 
deposits  of  salt,  coal,  and  iron. 

14.  The  capital  is  Boise  City. 

15.  Nevada.  —  Nevada  is  noted  for  its  silver-mines,  which 
for  a  number  of  years  yielded  more  than  one-half  of  all  the 
silver  annually  produced  in  the  United  States. 

16.  Chief  Places.  — Virginia  City,  famous  for  its  rich  silver- 
mines,  is  the  largest  place.     Carson  City  is  the  capital. 

17.  Utah,  remarkable  as  the  home  of  the  Mormons,  is  rich 
in  silver-mines,  which  are  extensively  worked.  Agriculture  is 
carried  on  principally  by  means  of  irrigation. 

18.  Salt  Lake  City  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 

19.  Arizona.  —  Arizona  includes  the  hottest  and  dryest  por 
tion  of  the  United  States.  The  northern  part  is  a  high  plateau, 
cut  through  by  the  stupendous  caiion  of  the  Colorado  River. 

The  Colorado  River  has  worn  through  the  soft  strata  of  sandstone  a 
narrow  channel,  that  in  many  places  is  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  deep. 
The  passage  through  this  deep  and  gloomy  caiion  is  exceedingly 
dangerous. 

This  territory  is  rich  in  mines  of  silver,  copper,  and  other 
minerals,  which  are  being  extensively  developed.  The  Apaches, 
a  hostile  Indian  tribe,  have  until  recently  kept  every  thing  in  a 
backward  state. 

20.  The  capital  is  Prescott. 


I\^. 


PACIFIC   COAST   DIVISION.  — DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Situation.  —  This  group  includes  the  States  of  California 
and  Oregon,  with  Washington  Territory  and  Alaska. 

2.  Seacoast.  —  Exclusive  of  Alaska,  this  section  has  a  coast 
line  of  about  one  thousand  miles.  Good  harbors,  however,  are 
not  numerous. 

3.  Surface. — The  lofty  chain  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  extends 
through  California  into  Oregon  and  Washington,  where  it  is 
called  the  Cascade  Range.  The  Coast  Range  is  a  series  of  low 
chains  near  the  Pacific  coast. 

4.  The  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  unlike  that  of  any  other 
part  of  the  United  States.  In  California  and  Oregon  it  is  mild 
and  equable  throughout  the  year  ;  but  it  presents  great  extremes 
of  moisture,  the  rains  being  confined  to  the  period  from  Novem- 
ber to  April,  and  no  rain  falling  during  the  other  months. 


THE    STATES    AND   TERRITORIES. 

REFERENCE    TABLE. 


STATES   OR   TERRITORIES. 

Area  in 

Square  Miles 

in  1880. 

Population 
in  1880, 

California 

Oregon 

IVashin^ton  Territory    .     . 
Alaska  Territory   .... 

158,360 
96,030 
69,180 

531,409 

864,694 
174,768 
75,116 
33,426 

1.  California  ranks  as  the  wealthiest  and  most  populous  of 
the  Pacific  S*^ates.  It  is,  next  to  Texas,  the  largest  state  in 
the  Union. 

2.  Physical  Features. — This  state  may  be  divided  into  four 
sections:  (i)  the  mountain-region  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  (2)  the 
desert  plateau-region  east  of  that  range,  (3)  the  fertile  valley- 
region  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Range  moun- 


58 


THE   PACIFIC   STATES   AND   TERRITORIES. 


m  .^n*  '^"   "i»^    ■!!%    ■       ^   ■   •       ' 


tains,  and  (4)  the  narrow  coast-belt  bordering  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

California  is  famed  for  its  grand  and  striking  natural  features.     Among 

these  are  the  Yosemite  Valley  and  Falls,  the  Big-Tree  Groves,  Lake 

Tahoe,  and  the  Geysers. 

3.  In  natural  wealth  this  state  is  highly  favored.     It  is  rich 
in  gold,  quicksilver,  coal,  and  other  minerals.     Its  fertile  soil 
and  favorable  climate  adapt  it  to  the  production  of  the  grains 
and  fruits  both  of  the  temper- 
ate  and    semi-tropical    climes. 
Its    situation    on    the    Pacific 
Ocean    gives    it   command   of 
the  trade  with  the  Orient. 

4.  The  chief  industries  are 
agriculture,  stock-raising,  min- 
ing, and  manufacturing.  Cali- 
fornia is  the  leading  state  in 
the  export  of  wheat,  gold, 
quicksilver,  wool,  and  wine. 
The  orange,  lemon,  fig,  olive, 
and  almond  are  cultivated  in 
the  central  and  the  southern 
parts. 

5.  Chief  Cities. — San  Fran- 
cisco is  the  commercial  em- 
porium of  the  whole  western 
coast  of  North  America,  and 
has  a  large  trade  with  China, 
Japan,  India,  Australia,  the 
Sandwich    Islands,   and    other 


islands   of   the    Pacific.      Oakland   ranks   next   in    population. 
Sacramento  is  the  capital. 

6.  Oregon  is  as  large  as  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  but  is 
thinly  populated.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  to 
which  the  fertile  river-valleys  are  finely  adapted  ;  stock-raising, 
which  is  largely  engaged  in  ;  and  cutting  timber  from  the  im- 
mense pine-forests  that  cover  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains.     The  salmon-fisheries  also  are  important. 

7.  Chief  Cities. —  Portland, 
on  the  Willamette,  is  the  lar- 
gest city.    Salem  is  the  capital. 

8.  Washington  Territory 
has  a  great  extent  of  seacoast, 
valuable  coal-fields,  and  exten- 
sive forests  of  pine  and  cedar. 

9.  The  capital  is  Olympia, 
on  Puget  Sound. 

10.  Alaska.  —  This  great 
isolated  possession  (purchased 
from  Russia  in  1867)  is  unor- 
ganized, but  is  governed  as  a 
county  of  Washington  Terri- 
tory. 

Its  forests,  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals, and  seal-fisheries  consti- 
tute the  wealth  of  Alaska  ;  and 
its  small  population  of  Aleuts, 
half-breeds,  and  Indians  are 
engaged  in  hunting  and  the 
fisheries. 


NEVADA   SCENES. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   NOTES. 


History.  —  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho,  and  part  of  Montana  belong  to 
the  United  States  by  right  of  exploration  and  settlement  confirmed  by  treaty 
with  Spain  in  1819.  Utah,  Nevada,  and  California  were  included  in  the 
territory  ceded  by  Mexico  in  1848.  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  in  their  pres- 
ent limits,  were  partly  in  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  partly  in  the  cession 
of  1848.     New  Mexico  and  Arizona  were  partly  in  the  cession  of  1848,  and 


partly  in  the  Gadsden  purchase  from  Mexico  in  1853.  Montana  was  organ- 
ized as  a  territory  in  1864,  and  Idaho  in  1863.  Oregon  was  organized  as  a 
territory  in  1848,  and  admitted  as  a  state  in  1859.  Washington  was  organ- 
ized as  a  territory  in  1853,  and  Utah  in  1850.  Nev.ida  was  admitted  as  a 
state  in  1864;  California,  in  1850;  and  Colorado,  in  1876.  Wyoming  was  or- 
ganized as  a  territory  in  1868;    New  Mexico,  in  1850;  and  Arizona,  in  1863. 


REFERENCE   TABLE    OF    POPULATION. 


CITIES,  TOWNS,  VILLAGES,  BOROUGHS,  ETC.,  HAVING  A  POPULATION  OF  OVER  10,000  BY  THE  CENSUS  OF  1880. 


POPULATION. 


POPULATION. 


POPULATION. 


POPULATION. 


Akron,  0 16,512 

Albany,  N.Y 90,758 

Alexandria,  Va 13,659 

Allegheny,  Penn 78,682 

AUentown,  Penn 18,063 

Altoona,  Penn 19,710 

Atchison,  Kan IS>'05 

Atlanta,  Ga. 37,409 

Attleborough,  Mass II, UI 

Auburn,  N.Y 21,924 

Augusta,  Ga 21,891 

Aurora,  III ".873 

Austin,  Tex. 10,960 

Baltimore,  Md 332>3'3 

Bangor,  Me 16,856 

Bay  City,  Mich 20,693 

Belleville,  111 10,683 

Biddeford,  Me 12,651 

Binghamton,  N.Y 17,317 

Bloomington,  111 17,180 

Boston,  Mass 362,839 

Bridgeport,  Conn 27,643 

Brockton,  Mass 13,608 

Brooklyn,  N.Y 566,663 

Buffalo,  N.Y 155,134 

Burlington,  lo i9i4SO 

Burlington,  Vt 11,364 

Cambridge,  Mass 52,669 

Camden,  N-J 41,659 

Canton,  0 12,258 

Cedar  Rapids,  lo 10,104 

Charleston,  S.C 49,984 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 12,892 

Chelsea,  Mass 21,782 

Chester,  Penn 14,997 

Chicago,  III 503,185 

Chicopee,  Mass >'i32S 

Chilicothe,  0 10,938 

Cincinnati,  0 255,139 

Cleveland,  0 160,146 

Cohoes,  N.Y 19,416 

Columbia,  S.C 10,036 

Columbus,  0 51,647 

Concord,  N.H 13,843 

Council  Bluffs,  lo 18,059 

Covington,  Ky 29,720 

Cumberland,  Md. 10,693 

Dallas,  Tex 10,358 

Danbury,  Conn 11,666 

Davenport,  lo 21,831 

Dayton,  0 38,678 

Denver,  Col 3S.629 

Derby,  Conn 11,650 

Des  Moines,  lo 22,408 

Detroit,  Mich 116,340 

Dover,  N.H 11,687 

Dubuque,  lo 22,234 

Easton,  Penn 11,924 

East  Saginaw,  Mich 19,016 


Eau  Claire,  Wis 10,119 

Elizabeth,  N.J 28,229 

Eimira,  N.Y 20,541 

Erie,  Penn 27,737 

Evansville,  Ind 29,280 

Fall  River,  Mass 48,961 

Fitchburg,  Mass 12,429 

Fond-du-Lac,  Wis '3,094 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 26,880 

Galesburg,  111 ii>437 

Galveston,  Tex 22,248 

Georgetown,  D.C '2,578 

Gloucester,  Mass '9,329 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.      .     .    .  32,016 

Hamilton,  0 12,122 

Hannibal,  Mo 11,074 

Harrisburg,  Penn 30,762 

Hartford,  Conn 42,015 

Haverhill,  Mass 18,472 

Hoboken,  N.J 30,999 

Holyoke,  Mass 21,915 

Houston,  Tex 16,513 

Hyde  Park,  111 15,716 

Indianapolis,  Ind 75,056 

Jackson,  Mich 16,105 

Jacksonville,  111 10,927 

Jersey  City,  N.J 120,722 

Joliet,  111 i6,'45 

Kalamazoo,  Mich ",937 

Kansas  City,  Mo 55,785 

Keokuk,  lo 12,117 

Kingston,  N.Y 18,344 

La  Crosse,  Wis 14,505 

Lafayette,  Ind.  ......  14,860 

Lancaster,  Penn 25,769 

Lawrence,  Mass 39,151 

Leadville,  Col 14,820 

Leavenworth,  Kan 16,546 

Lewiston,  Me 19.083 

Lexington,  Ky 16,656 

Lincoln,  Neb 13,003 

Lincoln,  R.I 13,765 

Little  Rock,  Ark I3.'38 

Lockport,  N.Y 13,522 

Logansport,  Ind 11,198 

Long  Island  City,  N.Y.  .    .    .  17,129 

Los  Angeles,  Cal ".1S3 

Louisville,  Ky. '23,758 

Lowell,  Mass 59,475 

Lynchburg,  Va '  5,959 

Lynn,  Mass 38,274 

Macon,  Ga '2,749 

Madison,  Wis '0,324 

Maiden,  Mass 12,017 

Manchester,  N.H 32,630 


Marlborough,  Mass 10,126 

Memphis,  Tenn 33>592 

Meriden,  Conn '5>54° 

Middletown,  Conn ",732 

Milwaukee,  Wis "5i587 

Minneapolis,  Minn 46,887 

Mobile,  Ala 29,132 

Montgomery,  Ala '6,713 

Muskegon,  Mich 11,262 

Nashua,  N.H '3,397 

Nashville,  Tenn 43,350 

New  Albany,  Ind 16,423 

Newark,  N.J '36,508 

New  Bedford,  Mass 26,845 

New  Brighton,  N.Y '2,679 

New  Britain,  Conn 11,800 

New  Brunswick,  N.J.     .    .    .  17,166 

Newburg,  N.Y 18,049 

Newburyport,  Mass '3'538 

New  Haven,  Conn 62,882 

New  London,  Conn 10,537 

New  Orleans,  La.       ....  216,090 

Newport,  Ky 20,433 

Newport,  R.I 15,693 

Newton,  Mass 16,995 

New  York,  N.Y 1,206,299 

Norfolk,  Va 21,966 

Norristown,  Penn 13,063 

North  Adams,  Mass.      .    .    .  10,192 

Northampton,  Mass 12,172 

Norwalk,  Conn 13,956 

Norwich,  Conn. 15,112 

Oakland,  Cal 34.555 

Ogdensburg,  N.Y 10,341 

Omaha,  Neb 30,518 

Orange,  N.J 13,207 

Oshkosh,  Wis 15,748 

Oswego,  N.Y 21,116 

Paterson,  N.J 51.031 

Pawtucket,  R.I 19,030 

Peoria,  111 29,259 

Petersburg,  Va 21,656 

Philadelphia,  Penn 847,170 

Pittsburg,  Penn 156,389 

Pittsfield,  Mass 13.367 

Portland,  Me 33,810 

Portland,  Ore 17.577 

Portsmouth,  O.      .....  11,321 

Portsmouth,  Va i'.390 

Pottsville,  Penn '3.^53 

Poughkeepsie,  N.Y 20,207 

Providence,  R.1 104,857 

Quincy,  111 27,268 

Quincy,  Mass. 10,529 

Racine,  Wis 16,031 

Reading,  Penn 43,278 

Richmond,  Ind 12,742 

Richmond,  Va. 63,600 


Rochester,  N.Y 89,366 

Rockford,  111 13,129 

Rock  Island,  111 ".659 

Rome,  N.Y '2,194 

Sacramento,  Cal 21,420 

Saginaw,  Mich '0,525 

Salem,  Mass 27,563 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah      .     .    .  20,768 

San  Antonio,  Tex 20,550 

Sandusky,  0 15,838 

San  Francisco,  Cal 233,959 

San  Jose,  Cal '2,567 

Savannah,  Ga. 30,709 

Schenectady,  N.Y '3.655 

Scranton,  Penn 45,850 

Shenandoah,  Penn '0,147 

Somerville,  Mass 24,933 

South  Bend,  Ind 13,280 

Springfield,  111 '9.743 

Springfield,  Mass. 33>340 

Springfield,  0 20,730 

Stamford,  Conn 11,209 

Steubenville,  0 12,093 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 32,431 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 350.518 

St.  Paul,  Minn 41.473 

Stockton,  Cal 10,282 

Syracuse,  N.Y 51.792 

Taunton,  Mass 21,213 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 26,042 

Toledo,  0 50,137 

Topeka,  Kan. 15,452 

Trenton,  N.J 29,910 

Troy,  N.Y 56,747 

Utica,  N.Y 33.914 

Vicksburg,  Miss 11,814 

Virginia  City,  Nev '0,917 

Waltham,  Mass ".7'i 

Warwick,  R.I 12,163 

Washington,  D.C '47.293 

Watcrburv,  Conn 17,806 

Watertown,  N.Y '0,697 

Weymouth,  Mass '0,57' 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 30,737 

Wilkesbarie,  Penn 23,339 

Williamsport,  Penn 18,934 

Wilmington,  Del 42,478 

Wilmington,  N.C 17.350 

Winona,  Minn 10,208 

Woburn,  Mass 10,931 

Woonsocket,  R.I 16,053 

Worcester,  Mass. 58,29' 

Yonkers,  N.Y 18,892 

York,  Penn 13.940 

Youngstown,  O '5r435 

Zanesville,  O '8,' 13 


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STANDARD  RAILWAY  TIME  IN  THE  U.S.  WHEN  12  O'CLOCK  NOON  ON  THE  MERIDIAN  OF  (JREENWICH. 


MOUNTAfN  Time 


INTERCOL.  TIME 


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PRINCIPAL   RAILROADS   IN  THE   UNITED  STA 


1.  Grand  Trunk. 

2.  Easteun. 

3-  Shore  Line. 

4.  Vermont  Central. 

i;.  Boston  and  Albany. 

6.  Hudson  River. 

7.  New  York  Central. 

8.  New  York,  Lakh  Erie,  and  Western. 

9.  Atlantic  and  Great  Western. 

10.  Pennsylvania. 

11,  Baltimoke  and  Ohio, 

13.  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago. 

13.  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern. 

14.  Michigan  Central. 

15.  Chicago  and  North-Western. 

16.  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific. 

17.  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and  Manitoba. 

18.  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul. 

19.  Chicago.  Burlington,  and  Quincy. 

20.  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph. 

21.  Chicago  and  Alton. 

22.  Illinois  Central  (Iowa  Division). 

23.  Wabash,  Toledo,  and  Western. 

24.  Ohio  and  Mississippi. 

25.  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis. 

26.  Cleveland.     Columbus,    Cincinnati    and 

Indianapolis. 

27.  Washington     City,    Virginia     Midland, 

AND  Great  Southern. 

28.  Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac. 

29.  Chksapkake  and  Ohio. 

I  Richmond  and  Petkrsburg. 
3o-<  Weldon  and  Wilmington. 

(  Wilmington,  Columbia,  and  Augusta. 


31.  South  Carolina. 

32.  Georgia. 

33.  Piedmont  Air  Line. 

34.  Atlanta  and  Charlotte  Ai 

35.  Central  Railroad  of  Georc 

36.  Western  and  Atlantic. 

37.  East  Tennessee,  Virginia,  i 

38.  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Cl 

39.  Cincinnati  Southern. 

40.  Atlantic  and  Gulf. 

41.  Western     Railroad     of    A 

Atlanta  and   West  Poin" 

42.  Louisville  and  Great  Soiri 

43.  Memi'His  and  Charleston. 

44.  Mobile  and  Ohio. 

45.  Chicago,  St.  Loiis  and  Nev 
46    St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain,  a 

47.  International  and  Great  I 

48.  Houston  and  Texas  Centr.a 

49.  Missouri.  Kansas,  and  Tex^* 

50.  St.  Louis  and  San  Fbancisc 

51.  Texas  and  Pacific. 

52.  Atchison,  Topkka,  and  Sanj 

53.  Union  Pacific.  i 

54.  Central  Pacific.  | 

55.  Northern  Pacific. 

56.  Southern  Pacific. 

57.  Oregon  and  CalipokniaJ 

58.  Burlington  and  Missousf 

59.  Denver  and  Rio  Gkandi 

60.  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 


MA,     AND 


LEANS. 

JU'IHERN. 

HEKN. 


t 


QUESTIONS    ON    THE    MAP. 


Agriculture. — What  is  the  principal  grain  grown  in  the  United  States  ? 
Ans.  Corn,  or  maize,  Where  is  the  great  "Corn  Region"?  What  are  the 
principal  States  occupying  this  region?  What  bread  grain  is  second  in 
the  quantity  grown ?  .^nj.  Wheat.  Wliereis  thegreat  "Wheat  Region"? 
What  are  the  principal  States  occupying  it  ?  Where  are  rye  and  oats 
largely  grown  ?  Near  the  seaboard  of  what  States  is  rice  raised  ?  What 
two  States  produce  sugar?  In  which  of  the  Central  States  are  hemp  and 
tobacco  extensively  cultivated  ?  In  which  o'  the  Southern  States,  eastern 
division,  is  tobacco  an  important  product?  Of  the  exports  of  the  United 
States  which  has  the  greatest  money  value?  Ans.  Cotton.  In  which  two 
sections  is  the  great  "  Cotton  Region"  ?  What  are  the  principal  States 
included  in  it  ?     In  which  States  is  sea-island  cotton  raised  ? 

Grazing. — Wliere  is  the  great  "  Pasture  Region"  of  the  United  States? 
What  are  the  principal  States  jncluded  in  this  region  ?  With  what  physical 
region  does  the  "  Pasture  Region"  coincide?  -4«j.  The  Plains.  What  can 
you  say  of  this  region?  Ans.  It  is  the  grazing  ground  of  countless  herds 
of  cattle,   which   are  here  raised   for  beef,  hides,   and   tallow.      Where 


are    butter    and    cheese    produced    in    great    quantities?    Ans.  In    the 
Middle  and  East  Central  States. 

Forest  Products.— Where  is  the  principal  "  Forest  Region"  of  the 
United  States?  In  what  other  parts  are  extensive  forest?  Ans. 
In  Maine,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida, 
Oregon,  and  Washington  Territory.  In  what  belt  of  States  are  tar, 
pitch,  rosin,  and  turpentine  marked  on  the  map  as  products? 

Minerals. — Where  is  the  great  "  Mineral  Region"  of  the  United 
States?  Which  of  the  physical  divisions  of  the  United  States  does 
it  comprise?  Which  two  precious  metals  are  found  in  great  quanti- 
ties in  this  region?  Which  are  the  two  most  useful  minerals?  Ans. 
Coal  and  iron.  In  which  .sections  of  the  United  States  are  the  chief 
deposits  of  coal  ?  Name  the  States.  Where  is  iron  found  most 
largely?  Lead?  Copper?  Salt?  Ans.  In  New  York,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  Louisiana.     In  what  States  is  petroleum  found? 

Manufactures. — In  what  sections  of  the  United  States  is  manu- 
facturing most  largely  carried  on  ? 

Transportation. — What  is  a  trunk  line  of  railroad?  Ans.  It  is  a 
principal  line  between  distant  and  important  points.  What  four 
divisions  of  trunk  lines  may  be  made?  Ans.  The  Eastern,  Central, 
Southern,  and  Western.  What  are  the  principal  Eastern  trunk  lines? 
Ans.  They  are  Nos.  i,  6,  and  7,  8,  10,  11.  (See  list  of  "  Principal  Rail- 
roads.") Name  these  lines.  What  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
Grand  Trunk  railroad?  What  is  its  western  terniinus?  Ans.  De- 
troit. What  two  railroads  form  a  trunk  line  from  New  York  to 
BufTalo?  Ans.  Nos.  6  and  7.  What  other  trunk  line  between  New 
York  and  BufTalo?  Ans.  No.  8.  What  road  between  Philadelphia 
and  Pittsburg?  What  roads  form  the  most  direct  connection  be- 
tween New  York  and  New  Orleans. 

What  is  the  great  railroad  centre  of  Illinois?  What  road  connects 
Chicago  with  Detroit?  Ans.  No.  14.  Chicago  with  Buffalo?  Ans. 
No.  13.  What  two  trunk  lines  connect  No.  13  with  New  York  City?. 
What  road  passing  through  Fort  Wayne  connects  Pittsburg  with 
Chicago?  By  what  trunk  line  is  Chicago  connected  with  Baltimore 
and  Washington?  Ans.  No.  li.  What  are  the  principal  roads 
connecting  Chicago  and  St.  Louis. 

What  two  cities  are  next  to  Chicago  the  greatest  railroad  centres 
in  the  Central  States?  What  trunk  lines  connect  Chicago  with  the 
Union  Pacific  road  at  Oinalia?  By  what  road  is  St.  Paul  connected 
with  Winnipeg?  What  are  the  termini  of  the  Illinois  Central  road? 
Ans.  Cairo,  Chicago,  and  Sioux  City.  What  points  does  the  Chicago 
and  Alton  road  pass  through  between  Chicago  and  Kansas  City  ? 
What  road  passing  through  Indianapolis  connects  Pittsburgh  with 
St.  Louis?  Through  what  other  important  point  does  No.  25  pass? 
What  commercial  centres  are  connected  by  No.  26?  By  what  road 
is  the  most  direct  communication  between  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis? 

By  what  road  are  Washington  and  Richmond  connected?  Rich- 
mond and  Wilmington,  N.  C.  ?  To  what  city  in  South  Carolina  does 
this  road  extend?  To  what  city  in  Georgia?  Ans.  Augusta.  What 
road  connects  Richmond  with  the  Ohio  River?  Ans.  No.  29.  By 
what  roads  is  Chattanooga  connected  with  Norfolk  ?  How  is  Chatta- 
nooga connected  with  Cincinnati  ?  By  what  road  is  Cliarlotte  con- 
nected with  Atlanta?  By  what  roads  is  Atlanta  connected  with 
Charleston?  By  what  road  is  Louisville  connected  with  Memphis? 
Memphis  with  Chattanooga?  Columbus  (Ky.)  with  New  Orleans? 
Cairo  and  New  Orleans?     St.  Louis  and  Texarkana?  ' 

What  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific  road  ?  What 
is  its  western  terminus?  Ans.  New  Tacoma,  on  Puget  Sound.  What 
two  roads  forming  a  continuous  line  extend  from  Omaha  to  San 
Francisco?  What  is  the  eastern  road  called?  The  western?  Where 
do  they  meet?  Ans.  At  Ogden.  By  what  road  are  Kansas  City  and 
Denver  connected?  Denver  and  Cheyenne  City?  What  road  con- 
nects Atchison  with  Leadville?  Atchison  with  Santa  Fe?  What  is 
the  route  of  the  Southern  Pacific  road  ?  Ans.  From  San  Francisco 
southward  through  California,  then  eastward  through  Arizona  to  El 
Paso  on  the  Rio  Grande.  How  many  routes  are  now  completed  to  the 
Pacific  Coast  ? 

What  is  the  longest  canal  in  the  United  States?  Ans.  The  Erie  Canal, 
connecting  the  Hudson  River  with  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo. 

[For  railroads  of  particular  States  the  teacher  should  ask  additional 
questions.] 


62 


PHYSICAL   SOUTH   AMERICA. 


PHYSICAL   SOUTH   AMERICA. 


II. 


III. 


PHYSICAL   VIEW   OF  SOUTH    AMERICA. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  PHYSICAL  MAP. 

What  great  circle  crosses  the  northern  part  of  South  America?  In 
which  zone  is  the  greater  part  of  this  grand  division  ?  What  tropic 
crosses  it?  In  which  zone  is  the  northern  part  of  South  America? 
^  The  southern  part  ?  By  what  isthmus  is  South  America  connected 
with  North  America  ?  Name  the  most  northerly  cape.  The  most 
easterly.  The  most  southerly.  The  most  westerly.  What  time 
is  it  at  Rio  Janeiro  when  it  is  noon  at  Washington?  Through 
what  part  of  South  America  does  the  meridian  of  Washington 
pass? 

Along  which  coast  is  the  longest  and  loftiest  mountain  system  ?  What 
plateau  is  in  the  central  part  of  the  system  ?  What  lakes  on  it  ? 
What  volcanic  mountains  are  near  the  Equator?  What  volcano 
near  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  ?  What  highland  is  in  the  eastern  part 
of  South  America?  Name  three  ranges  on  this  plateau..  What 
highland  is  in  the  northern  part  ?     Name  two  ranges  on  it. 

What  three  lowlands  east  of  the  Andes  ?  What  name  is  given  to  the 
northern  lowland  ?  What  river  drains  the  llanos  ?  What  name  is 
given  to  the  middle  lowland  ?  What  river  drains  the  selvas  ?  What 
name  is  given  to  the  southern  lowland?  What  rivers  drain  the 
pampas  ? 


IV.  In  what  mountain  regions  does  the  Orinoco  originate?  With 
what  branch  of  the  Amazon  is  it  connected  ?  What  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon  drain  the  Brazilian  Highland?  What 
great  river  forms  the  principal  drainage  of  the  Andes  ? 
What  and  where  are  the  head  streams  of  the  Amazon  ? 
What  river  drains  the  southern  part  of  South  America? 
What  is  the  estuary  of  the  Parana  named  ? 
V.  What  ocean-currents  flow  along  the  northern  part  of  South 
America?  Along  the  eastern  part?  The  southern?  The 
western  ? 

VI.  In  what  parts  of  South  America  is  gold  found?  Silver?  Dia- 
monds? Copper?  In  what  parts  of  Soi^h  America  is 
coffee  produced  ?  Cotton  ?  Sugar  ?  Tobacco  ?  Pepper  ? 
Cacao  ?    Rice  ?    Wheat  ?    Cinchona  ?    Caoutchouc  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  6.885.000  square  miles.     Population  28,600.000.] 

I.    SURFACE. 

1.  Natural  Divisions.  —  The  surface  of  South  Amer- 
ica is  naturally  divided  into  three  regions,  —  the  Andes 
region,  the  Atlantic  highlands  of  Brazil  and  Guiana, 
and  a  central  plain  comprising  the  llanos,  the  selvas, 
and  the  pampas. 

2.  Pacific  Highland.  —  The  Andes  Mountains,  which 
form  the  main  axis  of  South  America,  extend  along  the 
entire  western  coast  in  one,  two,  or  three  gigantic  ranges, 
resting  on  a  broad  table-land,  and  enclosing  elevated 
plateaus. 

I.  The  Andes  are  the  most  continuous  mountain  system  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  They  have  a  breadth  of  from  200 
to  300  miles,  and  reach  their  greatest  altitude  near  the  center 
of  the  system  in  Bolivia,  where  several  summits  are  nearly 
25,000  feet  above  the  sea.  (Mount  Illampu,  the  loftiest, 
24,8 1 2  feet.) 

II.  The  Andes  contain  several  groups  of  volcanoes,  the  most  noted  of 
which  are  Chimborazo  and  Cotopaxi  in  Ecuador,  and  Aconcagua  in 
Chili.  The  whole  Andes  region  is  subject  to  terrible  earthquakes, 
which  sometimes  destroy  entire  cities. 

3.  Atlantic  Highlands. —  The  Atlantic  highlands  are  the 
Brazilian  Highland  and  the  Guiana  Highland. 

I.  The  Brazilian  Highland  is  a  broad  but  low  table-land,  ridged  by  ranges 
not  over  5,000  to  6,000  feet  high. 
II.  The  Guiana  Highland  is  a  rugged  region  traversed  by  mountains  that 
form  the  watershed  between  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco 
Rivers. 

4.  The  central  plain  is  the  vast  level  lowland  extending 
from  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
except  where  interrupted  by  the  highlands  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 

5.  Its  Divisions. —  The  central  plain  includes  the  three 
immense  basins  of  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  La  Plata  rivers. 
The  plains  of  the  Orinoco  are  called  //atio.'!,  and  are  treeless ; 
those  of  the  Amazon  are  called  se/vas,  and  are  covered  with 
forests,  the  largest  and  densest  in  the  world  ;  those  of  the  La 
Plata  are  called  pampas,  and  are  covered  with  tall  grass. 


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64 


PHYSICAL  SOUTH   AMERICA. 


6.  The  river  system  of  South  America  is  the  most  extensive  on  the  globe,  and 
includes  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  La  Plata. 

From  the  fact  that  the  long  slope  of  South  America  is  eastward  from  the     f^::^ 
Andes,  all  the  great  rivers  flow  in  that  general  direction  into  the  Atlantic.     The 
streams  flowing  into  the  Pacific  are  mere  mountain  torrents. 

III.    CLIMATE. 

7.  The  two  climatic  regions  of  South  America  are  the  tropical  region  and  the  tem- 
perate region,  determined  partly  by  latitude  and  partly  by  altitude. 

8.  The  tropical  region  includes  all  that  part  which  is  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Torrid 
Zone,  —  three-fourths  of  South  America. 

9.  The  temperate  region  includes  the  countries  of  the  South  Temperate  Zone,  which, 
from  their  latitude,  have  a  moderate  temperature ;  and  the  high  table-lands  of  the  Andes, 
which,  owing  to  their  elevation,  have  a  cool  and  healthful  climate. 

10.  Rainfall. — The  tropical  plains  of  South  America  are  remarkable  for  the 
abundant  rainfall  which  they  receive ;  but  little  moisture  falls  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  and  for  more  than  one  thousand  miles  the  coast  is  rainless. 

The  Andes  have  a.Striking  effect  on  the  distribution  of  moisture  over  South  America. 
The  moisture-laden  trade-winds  from  the  east  drench  the  wide  plains  from  November 
to  May ;  but,  in  passing  over  the  Andes  south  of  the  Equator,  these  winds  are  deprived 
of  their  moisture,  and  hence  cause  on  the  Pacific  side  a  long  stretch  of  rainless  coast. 
North  of  Peru,  where  the  mountains  have  less  elevation,  the  rain-clouds  pass  down  to 
the  Pacific  slope,  and  water  it  abundantly.  Patagonia  receives  a  copious  rainfall,  caused 
by  the  counter  trade-winds  of  the  Pacific. 

IV.    VEGETATION. 

11.  Owing  to  its  combination  of  great  and  continuous  heat  with  abundant 
moisture,  South  America  has  wonderful  richness  and  variety  of  vegetation.  It 
may  be  divided  into  two  plant-regions,  of  which  some  characteristics  are,— 


PHYSICAL   SOUTH    AMERICA. 


65 


1^ 


Tropical    Region. 

Natural  Growths.  —  Palms,  tree-ferns,  the  mahogany,  rosewood,  logwood,  caout- 
chouc, and  cinchona  trees. 
Cultivated  Products. —  Coffee,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  cacao,  manioc,  banana,  sago. 

Temperate    Region. 
Natural  Growths.  —  Oak,  pine,  and  fir  trees,  pampas-grass,  cacti. 
Cultivated  Products.  —  Maize,  wheat,  beans,  matd-shrub,  potatoes,  tomatoes. 

V.   ANIMALS. 

12.  Characteristics.  —  South  America  lias  few  of  the  higher  types  of 
animals  ;  but  bird  and  insect  life  is  remarkable  for  variety  and  brilliancy, 
and  the  reptiles  are  large  and  numerous.  Characteristic  animals  of  the 
lowlands  are  the  puma,  the  jaguar,  and  the  monkey,  the  boa,  the  tapir,  and 
the  armadillo  ;  and  of  the  Andes  are  the  llama  (a  beast  of  burden)  and  the 
condor  (the  largest  of  flying  birds). 

13.  The  domestic  animals  —  the  horse,  cow,  and  sheep  —  are  not  native 
to  the  American  continent ;  and  those  of  South  America  were  originally 
introduced  from  Europe. 

VI.    RESOURCES   AND   PRODUCTIONS. 

14.  The  natural  advantages  of  South  America  are  its  valuable  vegeta- 
ble productions,  its  immense  pasture-plains,  and  its  rich  mines  of  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stories. 

The  principal  productions  may  be  thus  classified:  — 

1.  Vegetable  productions :  {a)  cabinet-woods  and  dye-woods,  the  cocoanut  and  sago 
palms,  india-rubber  and  medicinal  plants;  {b)  tropical  fruits;  {c)  the  cultivated 
plants,  as  the  coffee-tree,  sugar-cane,  &c. 

2.  Animal  productions ;  as  beef,  tallow,  hides,  horns,  hair,  &c.,  derived  from  the 
myriads  of  wild  cattle  on  the  vast  plains. 

3.  Mineral  productions ;  namely,  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  diamonds. 

VII.    RACES   OF   MAN. 

15.  The  races  of  South  America  are  Indians,  whites,  negroes,  and  mixed 
races. 

The  Indians  are  descendants  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  South  America.  They 
form  a  large  part  of  the  population. 

The  whites  are  descendants  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  who  took  posses- 
sion of  South  America  after  its  discovery  by  Columbus. 

The  negroes  are  descendants  of  blacks  brought  as  slaves  from  Africa,  and  form 
about  one-fifth  of  the  population. 

The  mixed  races  come  from  the  blending  of  the  various  races  of  South  America, 
and  form  the  greater  part  of  the  population. 


POLITICAL  SOUTH   AMERICA. 


67 


QUESTIONS    ON   THE   POLITICAL   MAP. 

I. 

General.  —  What  countries  of  South  America  border  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea?  On  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  On  the  Pacific?  Through  what  countries 
do  the  Andes  extend  ?  What  countries  are  drained  by  the  Orinoco  and  its 
tributaries  ?  By  the  Amazon  ?  By  the  La  Plata  and  its  tributaries  ?  What 
countries  are  crossed  by  the  Equator?     By  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn? 

Colombia.  —  What  political  division  of  North  America  joins  Colombia  on 
the  north-west?  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama? 
What  mountains  in  Colombia?  What  is  the  chief  river  of  Colombia? 
What  is  the  relative  situation  of  Panama  and  Aspinwall?  Locate  Bogota. 
Cartagena. 

Venezuela.  —  Bound  it.  What  great  river  traverses  it?  What  boundary 
mountains  between  Venezuela  and  Brazil  ?  What  lake  and  gulf  in  the 
northern  part  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  Locate  Maracaybo.  Angostura. 
La  Guayra. 

Guiana.  —  Bound  the  Guianas.  What  boundary  mountains  south  ?  What 
waters  north  ?     Give  the  capital  of  each  colony. 

Brazil.  —  Bound  it.  In  what  zone  is  the  greater  part?  What  is  the 
largest  river?  In  what  latitude  is  the  mouth  of  this  river?  What  rivers 
form  most  of  the  western  boundary  of  Brazil?  What  is  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  chains  of  the  Brazilian  mountain-system?  Near  what  tropic  is 
Rio  Janeiro?     Locate  Bahia.     Pernambuco. 

Paraguay  and  Uruguay.  —  Bound  Uruguay,  and  name  its  capital.  Bound 
Paraguay,  and  name  its  capital. 

Argentine  Confederation.  —  Bound  the  Argentine  Confederation.  Name 
its  largest  rivers.  What  capes  on  the  coast?  Where  is  Buenos  Ayres? 
Mendoza?  Cordova?  What  extensive  possession  has  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation in  the  south,  east  of  the  Andes  ?  What  does  the  strait  of 
Magellan  separate? 

Chili.  —  Bound  Chili.  What  islands  off  the  coast?  Between  what  par- 
allels is  Chili  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ?  Name  two  seaports  north  of 
Santiago. 


Bolivia.  —  Bound  Bolivia.  Its  small  sea-coast  is  crossed  by  what  circle  ? 
Of  what  two  great  rivers  are  its  streams  tributaries?  What  is  the  capital? 
Locate  Sucre.     Cochabamba. 

Peru.  —  Bound  Peru.  Does  the  greater  part  belong  to  the  Andes  region, 
or  to  the  central  plain?  What  great  river  has  its  head-waters  in  the 
Peruvian  Andes  ?     What  is  the  capital?     Locate  Arequipa.     Cuzco. 

Ecuador.  —  Bound  Ecuador.  What  gulf  in  the  south-western  part  ?  Most 
of  the  streams  are  tributaries  of  what  river?  What  great  volcanic  peaks  in 
Ecuador?     Near  what  circle  is  the  capital ?     Locate  Guayaquil.     Cuenca. 

II. 

/slands.  —  /n  what  direction  is  it  from  the  nearest  land?  By  what  waters 
surrounded? 

Trinidad?     Falkland?     Tierra  del  Fuego ?     Chiloe?    Juan  Fernandez? 

Capes.  —  Wliere  is  it  ?    Into  what  water  does  it  project  ? 

Blanco  (E)?     Blanco  (W)?     GaUinas?     Horn?     St.  Roque?     Frio? 

Mountains.  —  In  what  part  of  South  America  are  they  ? 
Andes?    Parime?    Geral  ?    Serra  do  Espinhado  ?    Aconcagua?    Sorata? 
Cotopaxi  ? 

Seas,  Gulfs,  &c.  —  Where  is  it?     Of  what  body  of  water  is  it  an  arm  ? 

Caribbean  ?  Darien  ?  San  Matias  ?  St.  George  ?  Guayaquil  ?  Pana- 
ma?    Strait  of  Magellan? 

Lakes.  —  Where  is  it  ? 

Maracaybo?    Titicaca?     Aullagas? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  ?  In  what  direction,  and  into  what,  does  it 
flow? 

Amazon?  Madeira?  Tocantins?  Magdalena?  Orinoco?  Rio  de  la 
Plata?     Uruguay?     Parana?    Colorado?     Negro? 

Cities.  — In  what  part  of  the  country  ?    How  situated? 

Aspinwall?  Maracaybo?  Bogota?  La  Guayra?  Caracas?  Georgetown? 
Paramaribo?  Cayenne?  Para?  Pernambuco?  Rio  Janeiro?  Montevideo? 
Asuncion?  Buenos  Ayres?  Valparaiso?  Santiago?  Sucre?  Potosi  ? 
Cuzco?    Callao?    Guayaquil?     Quito?     Panama?    Tucuman?     Rosarie? 


68 


POLITICAL   SOUTH   AMERICA. 


DESCRIPTION. 

TABLE   OF   SOUTH-AMERICAN    COUNTRIES,    POPULATION,    EXPORTS,    CITIES,    AND   GOVERNMENTS. 


COUNTRY. 

AREA. 

POPULATION. 

PRINCIPAL  EXPORTS. 

CAPITAL. 

LARGEST  CITY, 

WITH  POPULATION   IN 
EVEN  THOUSANDS. 

SEAPORTS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Colombia    .... 

320,000 

3,000,000 

Cotton,  coffee,  and  cinchona-bark. 

Bogota 

Bogota,  41. 

1 

Cartagena. 
Panama. 
Aspinwall. 

Republic 

Venezuela  .... 

439.000 

2,075,000 

Coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  cattle-products 
(as  hides,  tallow,  etc.). 

Caracas. 

Caracas,  55. 

La  GuayTa. 

Maracaybo. 
Angostura. 

Republic. 

British  Guiana  .    "1 

Georgetown. 

Georgetown,  40. 

Georgetown. 

British  Colony. 

Dutch  Guiana          i 

178,000 

347.000 

Indigo,  cocoa,  sugar,  coffee,  spices.  -^ 

Paramaribo. 

Paramaribo,  25. 

Paramaribo. 

Dutch  Colony. 

French  Guiana  .     J 

. 

Cayenne. 

Cayenne,  8. 

Cayenne. 

French  Colony. 

Brazil 

3,219,000 

12,000,000 

Coffee,    cotton,   sugar,   hides,   dye- 
woods.  India-rubber,  diamonds. 

Rio  Janeiro. 

Rio  Janeiro,  300. 

Rio  Janeiro. 
Bahia. 

Pemambuco. 
Para. 

Constitutional 
Monarchy. 

Paraguay    .... 

92,000 

294,000 

Paraguay  tea. 

Asuncion. 

Asuncion,  20. 

Republic. 

Uruguay 

72,000 

438,000 

Cattle-products. 

Montevideo. 

Montevideo,  73. 

Montevideo. 

Republic. 

Argentine    Confed- 
eration  

1,095,000 

2,540,000 

Cattle-products. 

Buenos  Ayres. 

Buenos  Ayres,  290. 

Buenos  AjTes. 

Republic. 

Chili 

210,000 

2,223,000 

Wheat,  copper  ore,  wool. 

Santiago. 

Santiago,  150. 

Valparaiso. 

Republic. 

Bolivia 

500,000 

2,325,000 

Cinchona-bark,  saltpeter,  silver  ore. 

La  Paz. 

La  Paz,  26. 

Republic. 

Peru 

425,000 

3,050,000 

Guano,  saltpeter,  cinchona-bark,  wool. 

Lima. 

Lima,  100. 

Callao. 

Republic. 

Ecuador 

248,000 

946,000 

Cocoa,  cinchona-bark,  dye-stuffs. 

Quito. 

Quito,  23. 

Guayaquil. 

Republic. 

QUESTIONS   ON  THE   POLITICAL   TABLE. 

I.  Which  is  the  most  populous  country  in  South  America?  Which  ranks 
next  in  population  ?  What  three  countries  have  each  a  population  of  two 
millions  ?  Which  of  the  republics  has  .the  smallest  population  ?  What  is 
the  population  of  the  European  colonies  ? 

II.  The  principal  tropical  products  are  cocoa,  coffee,  cotton,  India-rubber, 
indigo,  spices,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  What  countries  export  coffee  ?  Are 
these  all  tropical  countries  ?  What  country  exports  cotton  ?  What  countries 
export  cocoa.'  Indigo.'  Spices?  Sugar?  Tobacco?  What  countries 
export  cattle-products  ?  What  connection  is  there  between  these  exports 
and  the  llanos  and  pampas  ?  What  countries  export  cinchona-bark  ?  What 
country  exports  copper  ore  ?  Silver  ore  ?  Guano  ?  Diamonds  ?  What 
country  exports  a  kind  of  tea  ? 

III.  Name  the  capital,  the  metropolis,  and  the  first  seaport,  of  each 
of  the  maritime  countries  of  South  America. 

IV.  What  is  the  largest  city  of  South  America  ?  Which  city  is  second 
in  size  ?  Which  countries  of  South  America  have  no  seaports  ?  Why  ? 
Near  what  geographical  circle  is  the  largest  city  of  South  America  ? 

V.  What  is  the  only  monarchy  in  South  America  ?  What  three  European 
countries  have  each  a  colony  in  South  America?  What  nine  countries  df 
South  America  are  republics  ? 


RANK   AND   CIVILIZATION   OP   THE   COUNTRIES. 

I.  Colombia  is  the  most  important  of  the  northern  republics  ; 
it  has  a  convmanding  geographical  position,  from  its  possession 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  across  which,  from  Panama  to  Aspin- 
wall, there  is  railroad  communication.  A  proposed  ship-canal 
will  connect  the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

II.  Venezuela  is  a  second-rank  republic. 


III.  The  Guianas  are  mere  colonial  possessions,  and  are 
unimportant,  except  for  their  tropical  productions. 

IV.  Brazil  ranks  as  the  most  powerful  country  of  South 
America  ;  it  has  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  monar- 
chical government  ;  and  has  more  trade  with  the  United  States 
than  all  other  South-American  countries,  being  connected  with 
our  country  by  steamer  lines  and  telegraph.  It  produces  most 
of  the  coffee  of  the  world,  and  one-half  of  it  comes  to  the 
United  States. 

V.  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  are  small,  weak  republics,  that 
have  suffered  greatly  from  bad  government,  and  are  backward 
in  every  way. 

VI.  The  Argentine  Confederation  ranks  next  to  Chili  in 
enterprise ;  it  is  receiving  emigration  from  southern  Europe, 
and  has  a  large  and  increasing  commerce.  Education  is  more 
advanced  than  in  any  other  South-American  country. 

VII.  Chili  is  the  most  enterprising  of  the  nine  Spanish- 
American  republics ;  it  has  a  large  proportion  of  European  in- 
habitants ;  and  has  built  a  railroad  over  the  Andes.  Education 
is  fairly-well  diffused. 

VIII.  Bolivia  is  rich  in  mines  of  silver,  copper,  and  tin. 
Owing  to  want  of  communication,  the  great  natural  wealth  of 
the  country  is  little  developed. 

IX.  Peru,  a  progressive  republic,  has  several  lines  of  rail- 
road and  many  rich  silver-mines.  It  has  suffered  greatly  from 
wars  and  political  revolutions. 

X.  Ecuador  is  a  second-rank  republic. 


SUPPLEMENTARY   NOTES   ON   SOUTH   AMERICA. 


69 


.y/f^  -   '.• 


RAILPPRD  PP''"^^ 


i^theA^des 


SUPPLEMENTARY    NOTES. 

History The  mainland  of  South  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on 

his  third  voyage,  in  1498.  The  part  of  the  coast  at  which  he  landed  was  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River.  The  brilliant  success  of  Cortez  in  the  conquest  of 
Alexico  incited  other  Spanish  adventurers  to  similar  enterprises,  through  which 
gold  and  glory  might  be  gained.  Among  these  was  Pizarro,  who  accomplished  the 
conquest  of  Peru,  then  inhabited  by  people  who  had  attained  a  considerable  degree 
of  civilization.  Brazil,  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  1549,  fell  successively  under 
the  dominion  of  Spain  and  Holland,  but  was  finally  recovered  by  Portugal  in  1564. 
In  the  mean  while,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  South 
America  had  been  overrun  by  the  Spaniards.  Early  in  the  present  century  the 
Spanish  colonies  of  South  AmericTa  threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  mother-country,  and 
became  independent  republics.  Brazil  was  erected  into  one  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Portugal,  and  in  1822  was  proclaimed  an  independent  empire. 

Social  Condition.  —  In  civilization,  the  South  American  countries  occupy  a 
secondary  place.  Among  tlie  masses  of  the  population,  education  is  little  diffused  : 
but  there  are  numerous  schools  for  the  wealthier  classes,  and  the  secondary  or 
higher  education  is  well  provided  for.  In  the  republics,  political  revolutions  are 
very  frequent,  —  a  fact  that  greatly  retards  the  progress  of  these  states.  There  are 
•nit  few  manufactures  in  the  South  American  countries ;  but  they  supply  the  world 
.  ith  immense  quantities  of  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  caoutchouc,  cattle  prod- 
ucts, dye-woods,  drugs,  spices,  and  fruits.  The  means  of  interior  communication 
ire  extremely  rude.  In  the  Andes  countries,  transportation  is  effected  almost 
entirely  by  pack-animals.  Recently,  however,  considerable  progress  has  been  made 
ill  railroad  construction  in  various  parts  of  South  America,  and  there  are  now  one 
or  more  railroads  over  the  Andes. 

Among  the  characteristic  and  most  valuable  products  of  South  America  may 
be  mentioned  the  diamond,  which  is  extensively  mined  in  Brazil  by  the  process  of 
washing,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  and  the  digging  of  guano,  immense  deposits  of 
which  are  found  on  the  Chincha  Islands  off  the  coast  of  Peru. 

The  Isthmus  and  Cape  Horn.  —  These  two  extremes  of  South  America  possess 
a  peculiar  interest.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama  forms  here  the  narrow  barrier 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  and  in  consequence  of  this  obstacle  the 
world's  maritime  commerce  is  required  to  perform  the  prodigious  circumnavigation 
of  the  continent,  a  distance  of  ten  thousand  miles.  Various  projects  of  cutting 
an  inter-oceanic  canal  across  the  isthmus  engage  public  attention.  In  the  mean 
time  communication  is  had  by  a  railroad — perhaps  the  most  important  short  rail- 
road in  the  world  —  from  Panama  to  Aspinwall,  known  commercially  as  Colon,  the 
Spanish  form  of  the  name  Columbus.  Cape  Horn  Island,  or  Cape  Horn,  is  a 
precipitous  rock  forming  the  southernmost  of  the  Tierra  del  Fuego  Islands.  This 
southern  extremity  of  South  America  is  a  gloomy  region  of  fogs,  rains,  and  storms. 


PHYSICAL   EUROPE:    QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 


71 


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o 

p:; 

w 

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72 


PHYSICAL   EUROPE. 


^^. 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  3,757,000  square  miles.     Population,  330,000,000.) 
I.    SITUATION,   EXTENT,   AND    OUTLINE. 

1.  Situation  and  Extent.  —  Although  loosely  called  a  co7i- 
tinent,  Europe  is  really  a  western  peninsula  of  the  Eastern 
Continent,  Asia 
being  the  main  Q^ 
continental  mass. 
It  is  the  smallest  of  the 
grand  divisions,  its  area  i/^ 
being  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  United 
States.  It  measures  about 
2,500  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  nearly  3,500  miles  in 
its  greatest  extent  east  and  west.  / 

2.  Outline.  — The  outline  is 
exceedingly 


?^ 


^^' 


^^^r 


XICQWCE , 


II.    SURFACE  AND  DRAINAGE. 

3.  Natural  Divisions. — The  surface  of  Europe  is  naturally 
divided  into  two  parts, — Lowland  Europe  in  the  north-east, 
and  Highland  Europe  in  the  south-west. 

A  diagonal  line  of  mountain-ranges,  extending  from  south-east  to  north- 
west (Caucasus,  Carpathians,  and  -the  mountains  of  Central  Ger- 
many), forms  the  general  dividing-line  between  the  mountain- 
^\    ous  and  the  level  portions  of  Europe. 

I       4.  Lowland  Europe  is  a  great  plain  extending  from 

*"    /*^i.      the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Caucasus  Mountains 

and  the  Black  Sea,  and  westward  from  the 

Ural  Mountains  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

1^   It  is  divided  into  the   Eastern    Plain 

and  the  Western  Plain. 

The  Eastern  Plain  nearly  coincides  with  Russia ; 
the  Western  Plain  is  occupied  by  northern 
Germany,  Denmarlc,  Holland,  Belgium,  north- 
ern France,  and  is  prolonged  into  Great 
Britain. 

5.  The  Rivers  of  the  Eastern  Plain  are 

.■^  the  longest  in  Europe,  though  most 

of  them  are  commercially 

.    r^V&i      of    far    less 

■«5^X  importance 

'    ■*'   ^-    than  those  of 

te?«    ys.^   western 

1^^    Europe 


flAX , 


h ' 


■  '^^  ■ 

'  .V-,v 


cu>i' 


tOWttRk""* 


%u^  °'  ^" 


ROPE- 


irregular,  being  marked  by  numerous 
projections  of  the  land,  and  inbreakings  of  the  sea.  These 
give  to  Europe  an  extent  of  coast-line,  which,  in  proportion 
to  its  area,  is  much  greater  than  that  of  any  other  grand 
division. 

The  length  of  its  coast  is  about  20,000  miles,  or  one  linear  mile  of 
coast  for  every  190  square  miles  of  surface. 


The  three  largest 
are  the  Volga  (over 
2,000  miles)  and  the  Dnie- 
per and  the  Don  (each  about  1,000  miles). 

In  the  north-western  part  of  the  Eastern  Plain  is  a 
region  of  great  lakes,  including  lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega, 
the  largest  in  Europe. 

6.  Highland  Europe  has  a  varied  surface  of  mountain,  val- 
ley, and  plain. 

7.  The  main  axis  is  formed  by  the  Alps,  which  extend  from 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa  in  a  curve  around  Northern  Italy,  and  east- 
ward to  the  Adriatic.  The  Balkan  Mountains,  a  direct  continu- 
ation of  the  Dinaric  Alps,  prolong  the  main  axis  eastward  to 
the  Black  Sea. 

The  Alps  average  over  two  miles  in  height;  and  Mont   Blanc,  the 
loftiest  elevation  in  Europe,  ha;;  a  height  of  15,784  feet 


PHYSICAL   EUROPE. 


73 


8.  Rivers  of  Highland  Europe. — The  Alps  form  the  principal  water- 
shed of  Highland  Europe ;  and  here  rise  four  of  the  most  important 
rivers  of  this  section,  — the  Danube,  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Po. 

The  Danube  (i,8oo  miles  long)  is  the  second  of  the  European  rivers:  it  is  the 
channel  of  the  internal  trade  of  southern  Germany,  Austria,  and  Turkey. 

The  Rhine  (880  miles  long),  which  rises  in  the  central  Alps,  and  flows  into  the 
North  Sea,  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  Basle :  it  is  celebrated  both  for  its  pic- 
turesque scenery  and  for  the  many  large  cities  on  its  banks. 

The  Rhone  (490  miles  long)  drains  south-eastern  France,  and  flows  into  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

The  Po  (450  miles  long),  the  longest  river  of  Italy,  waters  the  fertile  plain  of 
Lombardy. 

III.    CLIMATE,  VEGETATION,  ANIMALS,   ETC. 

9.  Climate  and  Vegetation.  —  Europe  is  divided  into  three  zones  of 
climate  and  vegetation,  —  the  Southern,  the  Central,  and  the  Northern. 


COUNTRIES. 

CLIMATES. 

VEGETATION. 

Southern  Zone  .   . 

1.  The  Southern  peninsulas, 
Spain,    Italy,    Greece;     2. 
southern    France;    3.  Tur- 
l      key. 

Marked    by  a    short 
winter  and  a  long 
summer. 

Semi-tropical ;    as    the 
vine,  mulberry,  olive, 
orange,    lemon,    fig, 
&c. 

Central  Zone  .... 

I.  Middle    and    northern 
France ;  2.  British  Isles ;  3. 
Denmark ;  4.  Southern  Nor- 
way and   Sweden ;  5.  Ger- 
many ;  6.  Holland ;  7.  Bel- 
gium ;    8.  Switzerland ;    9. 
Austria ;  10.  Southern  Rus- 

Marked  by  the  four 
seasons,     with     a 
gradual    transition 
from    one    to    the 
other. 

The  cereals,  root-crops, 
garden   and   orchard 
products,  flax,  hemp, 
&c. 

Northern  Zone  . 

I.  Northern    Norway   and 
Sweden  ;    2.  Lapland  ;    3. 
Northern  Russia. 

Marked    by    short 
summers,  and  long 
and  severe  winters. 

Only  scanty  vegetation. 

»asp  i^^7Z_^n: 


ANIMALS    OF    EUROPE. 


10.  Animals.  —  Europe,  with  its  ancient  civilization,  is  the  home  of  the 
domesticated,  rather  than  the  wild  animals.  Of  the  latter,  however,  may 
be  mentioned  the  polar  bear,  the  brown  bear,  reindeer,  wolf,  stag,  deer, 
fox,  ibex,  and  chamois,  together  with  several  hundred  species  of  birds. 
The  seas  and  rivers  of  Europe  abound  in  fish. 

11.  Races.  —  With  a  few  exceptions  (the  most  important  of  which  are 
the  Turks,  and  the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  who  are  Mongolians),  the  people 
of  Europe  belong  to  the  Caucasian  race,  and  are  divided  into  four  families, 
—  the  Celtic,  Germanic  or  Teutonic,  Graeco-Roman,  and  Slavic. 


QUESTIONS   ON  THE   POLITICAL  MAP.  — REFERENCE  TABLE. 


75 


POLITICAL   EUROPE. 


CONSTANTINOPLt 


QUESTIONS    ON   THE   POLITICAL   MAP. 

Islands.  —  In  what  direction  is  it  from  the  nearest  land?  By  what  waters 
surrounded  f 

Lofoden  Islands  ?  Cyprus?  Iceland?  Sardinia?  British  Isles  ?  Cor- 
sica?    Faroe  Islands  ?     Sicily?     Crete? 

Peninsulas.  —  From  what  country  does  it  project?  Into  what  water,  or 
between  what  waters  ? 

Crimea  ?  Spain  and  Portugal  ?  Denmark  ?  Norway  and  Sweden  ? 
Greece?     Italy? 

Capes.  —  Where  is  it  ?    Into  ^uhat  water  does  it  project  ? 

North?     St.  Vincent?     Clear?     Matapan  ?     Finisterre  ?     The  Naze? 

Mountains.  —  JVhere  are  they  ? 

Ural  ?     Scandinavian  ?     Pyrenees  ?     Carpathian  ?     Alps  ?     Apennines  ? 

Seas,  Oulfs,  and  Bays.  —  Where  is  it  ? 

White?  Black?  North?  Baltic?  Irish?  Adriatic?  Gulf  of  Genoa? 
Of  the  Lion  ?     Archipelago  ?     Bay  of  Biscay  ? 


Straits  and  Channels.  —  Between  what  lands?    What  waters  does  it  connect? 

Gibraltar  ?  Bosporus  ?  Dover  ?  Cattegat  ?  English  Channel  ?  Darda 
nelles  ? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise?  Through  what  countries,  and  into  what 
body  of  water,  does  it  flow  ? 

Rhine?  Volga?  Don?  Danube?  Po?  Rhone?  Dwina?  Dnieper? 
Elbe  ?    Vistula  ? 

Lakes.  —  Where  is  it  ?     What  is  its  outlet  ? 

Ladoga?     Onega?     Peipus  ?     Wener?    Wetter? 

Countries.  —  Where  is  it?    How  bounded?     What  is  the  capital? 

England?  Scotland?  Ireland?  France?  Switzerland?  German  Em- 
pire ?  Austro-Hungary  ?  Norway  ?  Sweden  ?  Denmark  ?  Holland  ? 
Belgium?     Spain?     Portugal?     Italy?    Turkey?    Greece? 

Cities.  —  In  what  part  of  what  country  ? 

Rome?  Athens?  Constantinople?  Liverpool?  Hamburg?  Warsaw  J 
Moscow  ?  Glasgow  ?  Gottenburg  ?  Archangel  ?  Odessa  ?  Bremen  ? 
Hammerfest  ?     Lyons  ?     Belfast  ?     Bucharest  ? 


REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES. 


NAMES. 

AREA. 

POPULATION. 

CAPITALS. 

LARGEST  CITY,  AND 
POPULATION. 

FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland   . 
France  

Square  Miles. 
121,600 
204,080 

15,910 
208,690 

12,740 

".370 

264,950 

2,165,900 

299,610 

14,780 
193,220 

34.4 'o 
•  114,410 

50,170 
18,750 
3.480 

24,700 
13,860 

35,246,000 

37,672,000 

2,846,000 

45,234,000 

4,  u  4,000 

5,520,000 

39,196,000 

85,508,000 

6,497,000 

1,969,000 

16,343,000 

4,160,000 
28,459,000 

T, 979,000 
4,490,000 
5,376,000 
5,700,000 
236,000 

r,999,ooo 
816,000 

London. 

Paris. 

Berne. 

Berlin. 

The  Hague. 

Brussels. 

Vienna. 

St.  Petersburg. 

Stockholm. 

Copenhagen. 

Madrid. 

Lisbon. 

Rome. 

Athens. 

Constantinople. 

Bucharest. 

Belgrade. 

Cettigne. 

Sophia. 
Philippopolis. 

London  (4,764,000). 
Paris  (2,269,000). 
Geneva  (68,000). 
Berlin  (1,122,000). 
Amsterdam  (328,000). 
Brussels  (395,000). 
Vienna  (1,103,000). 
St.  Petersburg  (876,000). 
Stockholm  (176,000). 
Copenhagen  (235,000). 
Madrid  (398,000). 
Lisbon  (246,000). 
Naples  (494,000). 
Athens  (63,000). 
Constantinople  (600,000). 
Bucharest  (221,000). 
Belgrade  (27,000). 
Podgoritza  (4,000). 

Rustchuk  (27,000). 
Philippopolis  (24,000). 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Republic. 

Republic. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Absolute  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Absolute  despotism. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  monarchy. 

Constitutional  principality. 

Semi-indei)endent  constitutional 
monarchy. 

Semi-independent  Turkish  prov- 
ince. 

Switzerland 

German  Empire 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Austro-Hungary 

Russia 

Sweden  and  Norway    .     .     . 

Denmark 

Spain 

Portugal 

Italy 

Greece 

European  Turkey     .... 

Roumania 

Servia 

Montenegro 

Bulgaria 

Eastern  Roumelia    .... 

76 


GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

Situation.  —  Between  what  two  parallels  and  what  two  meridians  do  the 
British  Isles  lie.'  What  is  the  longitude  of  Greenwich,  reckoning  from 
Washington  as  prime  meridian?  What  separates  England  from  France? 
What  is  the  latitude  of  London  ? 

England.  —  Bound  England.  What  waters 'separate  it  from  Ireland? 
What  estuary  {Jirth)  between  England  and  Scotland,  on  the  west  coast  ? 
What  part  of  England  is  drained  by  the  Thames  River?  What  rivers  flow 
into  Bristol  Channel  ?  On  what  river  is  Liverpool  ?  Describe  the  Tyne, 
the  H  umber,  the  Ouse,  the  Avon.  What  mountains  form  a  partial  boundary 
between  England  and  Scotland  ?  Which  parts  of  England  are  mountainous  ? 
Name  any  ranges.  What  coast-island  in  the  southern  part  ?  What  two 
large  islands  in  the  Irish  Sea  ?  Where  is  London?  Where  is  Liverpool? 
What  city  about  thirty  miles  east  of  Liverpool  ?  Where  is  Sheffield  ?  Bir- 
mingham ?     Bristol  ?     Newcastle  ?     Oxford  ? 


Wales.  —  Bound  Wales.  What  bay  on  the  west?  What  channel  south  ? 
What  mountain-chain  occupies  most  of  Wales  ?  Name  a  peak.  What 
island  is  separated  from  Wales  by  Menai  Strait?  Where  is  Menhyr-Tydvil  ? 
Swansea?     Cardiff? 

Scotland.  —  Bound  Scotland.  What  separates  it  from  Ireland  ?  What 
is  the  general  character  of  the  coast  ?  Name  the  most  important  estuaries 
(firths)  on  the  east  coast.  On  the  west  coast.  What  group  of  islands  west  ? 
What  groups  north  ?  What  mountain-range  toward  the  central  part  of  Scot- 
land ?  Where  is  Ben  Lomond  ?  Ben  Nevis  ?  Where  is  the  River  Clyde  ? 
The  Tweed  ?     Locate  Edinburgh.     Glasgow.     Aberdeen.     Dundee. 

Ireland.  —  What  waters  divide  Ireland  from  the  island  of  Great  Britain? 
Which  is  nearer  the  United  States,- — Ireland  or  England  ?  Where  is  Done- 
gal Bay  ?  What  bay  in  the  east-central  part  ?  Through  what  lakes  (lotighs) 
does  the  Shannon  flow?  Where  is  Cape  Clear?  Bantry  Bay?  Galway 
Bay  ?  What  two  lakes  in  the  north  of  Ireland  ?  Where  is  Limerick  ? 
Dublin  ?  Cork  ?  Belfast  ?  Valentia  Island  is  the  terminus  of  one  of  the 
Atlantic  telegraph  cables  :  where  is  that  island  ?     Where  is  Queenstown  ? 


GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND. 


1.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in- 
cludes the  island  of  Great  Britain  (in  wfiich  are  comprised 
England,  Scotland,  and  Wales),  the  island  of  Ireland,  and 
numerous  small  adjacent  islands. 

2.  British  Empire.  —  The  name  British  Empire  is  applied 
to  the  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  its  numerous 
colonies  and  possessions  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  One- 
sixth  of  the  entire  human  race,  scattered  over  nearly  one-sixth 
of  the  globe,  is  under  British  rule. 

The   most   important  of  the  British   colonies   are   the   Dominion  of 
Canada,  Australia,  and  British  India. 

3.  Natural  Wealth.  —  Its  vast  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and 
other  minerals,  its  productive  soil,  its  extent  of  seacoast,  its 
great  number  of  good  harbors,  and  its  central  situation  for  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  are  the  principal  sources  of  the  wealth 
and  power  of  Great  Britain. 

4.  Manufactures.  —  Great  Britain's  immense  supply  of  coal 
and  iron  has  rendered  that  country,  since  the  invention  of  the 
steam-engine  and  steam-machinery,  the  greatest  of  manufactur- 
ing countries.  The  chief  manufactures  are  those  of  cotton, 
wool,  silk,  iron,  leather,  and  earthenware. 

5.  Agriculture.  —  Great  attention  is  paid  to  scientific  agri- 
culture, the  principal  crops  being  wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes, 
hops,  and  garden  and  orchard  products.  The  agricultural  prod- 
uce, though  considerable  in  amount,  is  not  sufficient  to  feed 
the  population,  and  the  deficiency  has  to  be  yearly  supplied 
by  the  importation  of  breadstuffs  from  abroad. 

6.  Commerce.  —  Commercially,  Great  Britain  ranks  as  the 
foremost  of  countries.  Its  trade  consists  largely  in  exchanging 
manufactured  goods  for  cotton,  wool,  and  other  raw  material, 
and  for  food-staples  and  articles  of  luxury. 

To  carry  on  this  vast  exchange,  40,000  vessels,  manned  by 
300,000  sailors,  are  employed. 

7.  Government.  —  Great  Britain  is  a  constitutional  monar- 
chy. The  laws  are  made  by  Parliament,  which  is  composed  of 
the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  former  body  hold  their  seats  by  right  of  birth  ;  the 
members  of  the  latter  are  elected  as  representatives  of  the 
various  counties  and  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom. 


8.  Cities.  —  In  England  the  six  largest  cities  are  London, 
Manchester,  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  and  Sheffield. 

London,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  metropolis  01 
the  British  Empire,  is  the  largest  and  wealthiest  city  on  the 
globe,  and  is  the  financial  center  of  the  world's  commerce.  It 
covers  122  square  miles,  and  has  a  population  of  4,000,000. 
Manchester  is  the  leading  city  of  the  world  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  goods.  Liverpool  ranks  in  commerce  as  the 
second  city,  and  is  the  chief  seaport  for  the  American  trade  : 
its  magnificent  docks  extend  many  miles,  and  contain  the  ships 
of  every  nation.  Birmingham  is  the  greatest  city  of  the  world 
for  the  manufacture  of  engines,  machinery,  and  hardware. 
Leeds  is  the  greatest  woolen  manufacturing  city  ;  it  also  makes 
thread,  glass-ware,  steam-engines,  and  machinery.  Sheffield  is 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  cutlery,  and  steel  and  plated  ware. 

In  Wales,  Merthyr-Tydvil,  the  leading  commercial  city,  and 
Swansea,  noted  for  its  mining,  are  the  two  chief  places. 

In  Scotland,  Glasgow  is  the  largest  city  and  the  chief  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  center.  Edinburgh  is  the  literary 
metropolis.     Dundee  and  Aberdeen  rank  next  in  importance. 

In  Ireland,  Dublin  and  Belfast  are  the  largest  cities  :  the  for- 
mer is  the  capital ;  the  latter  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manu- 
facture of  linen  goods. 

REFERENCE   TABLE   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   BRITISH 
COLONIES. 


'  Gibraltar. 

Dominion  of  Canada. 

In  Europe  .  . 

Malta. 

Newfoundland. 

'  Hindostan. 

British  Honduras. 

In  Asia  .  .  .  . 

Burmah. 

Ceylon. 

Hong-Kong. 

In  America  . 

Jamaica. 
Trinidad. 
Barbadoes. 

Cyprus. 
Aden. 
Singapore. 
Cape  Colony. 

The  Bahamas. 
The  Bermudas. 
British  Guiana. 
Falkland  Islands. 

Sierra  Leone. 

In  Africa  .  .  . 

Gold  Coast. 

Natal. 

r  Australia. 

St.  Helena. 

In  Oceania   .  i  Tasmania. 

Mauritius. 

I  New  Zealand. 

SHETLAND 
IHLKS 

ORKNEY  IS. 

Sam€  Scale  as  Map 


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78 


FRANCE  AND   SWITZERLAND. 


FRANCE    AND    S^^^ITZERLAND. 


Longitude    West    4    from    Greenwicli     2 


i     Xonffitude   East     6      from    Grtenwicli    8 


l^onp^itud 


-.     >-        -.  ,  [  . — J . ■ . l^J- 

Ea^t    Irei^^^^^      .;y  ,.-         ^C.CiauiSt  ■Washington  83 


CORSICA 

Same  Seal« 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 
FRANCE. 

Situation.  —  On  liow  many  borders  has  France  a  natural  boundary  ? 
What  is  this  boundary  on  the  north?  The  west?  The  south?  What 
country  north-east  of  France?  What  countries  east?  Is  most  of  France 
east,  or  west,  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  ?  Measure  by  the  scale  of  miles 
the  greatest  extent  of  France  from  north  to  south.     From  east  to  west. 

Outline.  —  What  waters  wash  the  north-western  and  western  coasts  of 
France  ?  Of  what  ocean  are  these  arms  ?  What  sea  on  the  south  ?  What 
capes  (or  points)  project  from  the  north-western  and  western  coasts  ?  From 
the  southern  coast?  What  group  of  islands  off  the  north-west  coast?  To 
what  power  do  these  islands  belong  ?  Ans.  To  Great  Britain.  What  large 
island  in  the  Mediterranean  belongs  to  France?  Ans.  Corsica.  In  what 
town  in  this  island  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte  born?    Ans.  In  Ajaccio. 

Mountains What  mountains  border  France  on  the  south  ?     What  small 

republic  in  the  Pyrenees?  Ans.  The  republic  of  Andorra.  What  moun- 
tain-range between  France  and  Switzerland?  Between  France  and  Italy? 
What  peak  just  south  of  latitude  46°  is  on  the  border  line  between  France 
and  Italy?  For  what  is  Mont  Blanc  remarkable?  Ans.  It  is  the  loftiest 
summit  of  the  Alps  (15,784  feet).  What  other  noted  mountain  south-east  of 
Mont  Blanc  ?     What  mountain-ranges  are  in  the  interior  of  France  ? 


Rivers.  —  What  large  river  flows  into  the  English  Channel?  What  are 
its  principal  tributaries  ?  What  two  large  rivers  flow  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay? 
What  large  river  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  the  Lion  ?  (Describe  each  of  these 
rivers  by  stating  where  it  rises,  in  what  direction,  and  into  what  body  of 
water,  itjiows.) 

Cities.  —  What  cities  are  on  the  Seine  River?  Which  is  the  capital? 
What  city  is  its  port  ?  Where  are  Cherbourg  and  Brest,  important  naval 
stations  ?  Where  is  Toulon,  the  great  naval  dockyard  of  France  ?  What 
large  city  on  the  Loire  ?  On  the  Garonne  ?  On  the  Rhone  ?  What  seaport 
on  the  Gulf  of  the  Lion  ?  What  large  city  near  the  Belgian  border  ?  What 
large  city  south-west  of  Lyons  ? 

SWITZERLAND. 

What  countries  surround  Switzerland  ?  What  can  you  say  of  its  seacoast  ? 
What  is  the  nature  of  its  surface?  What  great  mountain-system  covers 
most  of  Switzerland?  What  mountain-range  on  its  north-western  border ? 
What  noted  mountain-peak  in  the  central  part?  In  the  south-western  part? 
What  lake  on  the  north-eastern  border?  What  lake  on  the  south-western 
border?  Name  three  other  Swiss  lakes.  What  two  large  rivers  rise  in 
Switzerland  ?  Describe  their  course.  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  city  on 
Lake  Geneva?     Locate  Basle.     Zurich. 


FRANCE  AND   SWITZERLAND. 


79 


FRANCE. 

1.  Extent  and  Rank.  —  In  area  France  is  somewhat  larger 
than  California,  but  not  so  large  as  Texas.  It  ranks  as  one 
of  the  oldest,  most  powerful,  and  most  highly  civilized  nations  of 
Europe. 

2.  Climate  and  Vegetation. — The  climate  varies  from  cool- 
temperate,  in  the  north,  to  warm-temperate,  in  the  south.  In 
passing  from  the  English  Channel  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
the  character  of  the  vegetation  shows  the  gradual  rise  of  tem- 
perature. The  north  is  the  land  of  wheat ;  the  center,  the  land 
of  the  vine ;  and  the  south,  the  land  of  the  olive. 

3.  Occupations.  —  The  principal  occupations  are  agriculture, 
manufacturing,  and  commerce. 

4.  Agriculture.  —  About  three-fifths  of  the  population  are 
engaged  in  agricultural  occupations,  and  about  one-half  of  the 
whole  country  is  under  the  plow.  The  principal  objects  of 
cultivation  are,  in  the  northern  section,  grains  and  root-crops, 
with  hemp  and  flax ;  in  the  central  and  southern  sections,  maize 
and  the  vine  and  olive,  together  with  the  mulberry-tree,  on  the 
leaves  of  which  the  silk-worm  feeds. 

5.  Manufactures.  —  In   the  extent  and  value  of   her  man- 
ufacturing   industry 
France  ranks  second 
only  to  Great  Britain. 


The  leading  manu- 
factures are  :  (i)  Wine, 
of  which  France  produces 
more  than  any  other 
country ;  (2)  Silks  and 
satins,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  which  it  surpasses 
all  other  countries;  (3) 
Broadclotlts  and  cassi- 
meres  of  the  finest  qual- 
ity ;  (4)  Articles  of  taste 
and  fas/lion,  such  as 
jewelry,  watches,  ribbons, 
laces,  shawls,  gloves,  hats 
and  bonnets,  artificial 
flowers,  porcelain,  per- 
fumery, etc. 

6.  Commerce.  — 
The  foreign  com- 
merce of  France 
consists  principally 
in  the  importation 
of  raw  material  and 
tropical  productions, 
and  the  exportation 
of  manufactured  arti- 
cles and  the  produce 
of  her  vineyards. 

7.  Government. — '■ 
F" ranee  is  a  republic. 

8.  Cities.  —  Paris 
is  second  only  to 
London  in  wealth 
and  trade.  It  is  the 
most  beautiful  and 
attractive  of  cities, 
and    is    the   world's 


THE  MATTERHORN,  SWITZERLAND. 


center  of  modern  art,  fashion,  and  pleasure,  as  London  is 
of  commerce.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  magnificent  public 
buildings,  public  gardens,  and  places  of  amusement,  and  for 
its  great  libraries,  museums,  art-galleries,  and  scientific  schools, 
as  also  for  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  articles  of  art,  orna- 
ment, and  fashion. 

Lyons  is  the  second  city  in  rank,  and  the  chief  seat  for  the 
manufacture  of  silks,  satins,  and  velvets. 

Marseilles  is  the  principal  seaport,  and  has  varied  manufac- 
tures, and  extensive  trade  in  silks,  wines,  brandies,  etc. 

Bordeaux  is  the  depot  of  the  red-wine  trade. 

Lisle  is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  cotton  and  linen  goods. 

Foreign  Possessions.  —  The  principal  foreign  possessions  of  France  are: 
(I)  Algeria  in  Africa;  (2)  French  Guiana;  (3)  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe 
in  the  West  India  Islands;  (4)  The  Marquesas  Islands  and  New  Caledonia 
in  Polynesia,  and  Corsica  in  the  Mediterranean. 

SWITZERLAND. 
I.  Area  and  Surface.  —  Switzerland,  the  area  of   which  is 
about  one-third   that  of  the  state  of   New  York,  is  the  most 
mountainous  country  in  Europe. 

2.  Occupations. — 
Grain  and  the  vine 
are  cultivated  in  the 
lower  valleys ;  but 
stock-raising  and  dai- 
rying give  employ- 
ment to  the  majority 
of  the  inhabitants. 

The  numerous  rapid 
mountain-streams  af- 
ford cheap  and  abun- 
dant water  -  power. 
The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  cottons, 
woolens,  linens,  silks, 
watches,  jewelry,  and 
wood-carvings. 

3.  Government. — 
Switzerland  is  a  fed- 
eral republic,  com- 
prising twenty -two 
small  states,  called 
cautofts. 

The  legislative  func- 
tion is  vested  in  a  Federal 
Assembly  (corresponding 
to  our  Congress),  consist- 
ing of  a  National  Council 
(like  our  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives), and  a  Council 
of  States,  or  Senate,  both 
elective. 

4.  Cities.  —  Gene- 
va, Zurich,  and  Basle, 
the  largest  cities,  are 
the  principal  manu- 
facturing and  com- 
mercial places.  Berne 
is  the  capital. 


8o 


GERMAN   EMPIRE,    NETHERLANDS,   AND   BELGIUM. 


GERMAN    EMPIRE,    NETHERLANDS,    AND    BELGIUM. 


NETHERIiANDS   AXD    BELGIUM,     j  t. 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


s    r:    A 


la       30      50 


100 

A 


ABORNHOLM  L 

Ten,  Cape  Arcona    <-   ^ 


\Siolpe 


-binizic^ 


^^  •^*<.    L«  >i^l'^ 


4Glwk,t«a, 


V? 


Starpvra     -f — 


^'•.a. 


^. 


Opi^lw 


l^eiss*   l\GWl»it*  V» 


'CarUbatl 


1  Schawnbor;g  Lippe. 

2  Lippe-DetmoJd. 
S  AnhalL 

4  Scbwurburg-Soiuler- 

5  Waldeck. 

0  Hoheozollem. 

7  S&xe  Coburg-Gotba. 

8  "    MeiDlngeii. 

9  "    Weimar. 

10  '*    Altttibarg. 

11  Reuu-Grdtz. 
13      "     Schleitx. 

It  ScbwsRboir     Rotlol- 


U 


31^     0^_ 


<T» 


2 


^Petth 


Longitude  91        East       from  93  'WaAhiii(^on         9S 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

GERMAN    EMPIRE. 

General.  —  What  natural  and  political  boundaries  has  Germany  on  the 
north  ?  What  country  east  ?  What  two  countries  border  it  on  the  south  ? 
What  three  countries  border  it  on  the  west  ?  What  mountains  separate  Ger- 
many from  Bohemia  ?  What  mountains  in  the  south-western  part  ?  In  the 
central  part  ?  What  two  large  rivers  flow  into  the  Baltic  Sea  ?  What  large 
river  flows  into  the  North  Sea  within  the  limits  of  Germany?  What  large 
river  flows  into  the  North  Sea  beyond  the  limits  of  Germany?  Name  two 
tributaries  of  the  Rhine  n  Germany.  What  is  the  largest  river  of  South- 
ern Germany  ?  Where  is  Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  German  Empire  ?  What 
is  its  largest  southern  boundary  ? 

The  States.  —  How  much  of  Germany  seems  from  the  map  to  be  occupied 
by  Prussia?  What  is  its  eastern  boundary  ?  Its  western  ?  What  state  of 
the  German  Empire,  besides  Prussia,  borders  on  the  Baltic  Sea?  What  on 
the  North  Sea  ?  State  the  situation  of  the  three  "  Free  Cities  "  of  Ger- 
many, —  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen.  Bound  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  The 
kingdom  of  Bavaria.  The  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg.  In  what  part  of 
Germany  is  the  province  of  Alsace-Lorraine  ?     Which  of  the  German  states 


border  on    Belgium?     Between  or  through  what  German  states  does  the 
Rhine  flow  ? 

Cities.  —  On  what  river  is  Berlin  ?  What  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vis- 
tula ?  What  two  large  cities  on  the  Oder?  What  cities  are  on  the  Elbe? 
and  in  which  state  is  each  ?  What  is  the  capital  of  Bavaria  ?  What  other 
large  place  in  Bavaria?  What  large  city  on  the  River  Main?  What  five 
large  cities  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  which  state  is  each  ? 

NETHERLANDS. 

What  natural  boundarj-  have  the  Netherlands  on  the  north  and  west  ? 
What  country  east?  South?  What  arm  of  the  North  Sea  breaks  into  the 
Netherlands  ?  What  large  river  traverses  the  Netherlands  ?  What  is  the 
principal  tributary  of  the  Rhine  in  this  kingdom  ?  What  city  is  the  capital  ? 
What  city  on  the  Zuyder-Zee  ?  What  city  south-west  of  Amsterdam  ? 
South-east  ? 

BELGIUM. 

Bound  Belgium.  Which  part  is  mountainous  ?  What  two  rivers  in 
Belgium  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  citj'  north  of  Brussels  ?  What  two 
cities  west  of  Antwerp?     What  city  south-east  of  Brussels  ? 


GERMAN   EMPIRE,   NETHERLANDS,   AND   BELGIUM. 


8i 


GERMAN   EMPIRE. 

1.  Area  and  Population.  —  The  area  of  the 

German  Empire  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
France  ;  its  population  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Its  Composition. — The  German  Empire  is 

a  confederation  of  twenty-six  states,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 
kingdoms  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberg. 

3.  Government. — The  government  of  the  empire  is  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy.  The  imperial  Legislature  consists  of  two 
bodies,  —  the  Federal  Council  {Bundesrath)  and  the  Reichstag; 
the  former  consisting  of  members  appointed  by  the  governments 
of  the  individual  states,  the  latter  of  members  elected  by  uni- 
versal suffrage. 

The  King  of  Prussia  is  German  Emperor  [Deutscher  Kaiser). 

4.  Natural  Wealth.  —  The  natural  wealth  of  Germany  is 
found  in  its  productive  soil  in  the  plains  and  valleys,  its  exten- 
sive forests  in  the  mountain  regions,  and  its  rich  supply  of  iron, 
coal,  copper,  zinc,  and  other  minerals. 

5.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  manufacturing, 
mining,  and  commerce. 

Agriculture.  —  Tilling  the  soil  forms  the  occupation  of  three-fourths  of 
the  German  people.  The  principal  crops  are  rye  (the  grain  most  used  by 
the  people),  wheat,  oats,  and  potatoes ;  the  vine  grows  in  the  Rhine  provinces ; 
and  tobacco,  flax,  hemp,  and  beet-root  are  cultivated  in  m.any  districts. 

Manufactures.  —  In  manufactures  Germany  is  behind  England  and  France; 
but  various  branches  of  manufacturing  industrj',  as  the  making  of  woolen, 
linen,  and  leather  goods,  of  wine  and  beer,  and  of  paper,  glass-ware,  etc.,  are 
very  extensively  carried  on. 

Commerce.  —  Germany  has  considerable  foreign  commerce,  largely  with 
the  United  States  and  England.  Wheat,  wines,  wool,  and  manufactures  are 
the  principal  exports.     The  chief  seaports  are  Hamburg  and  Bremen. 

6.  Cities.  —  The  principal  cities  of  the  German  Empire  are 
Berlin,  the  political  and  literary  capital ;  Breslau,  the  greatest 
wool-market  in  Europe ;  Dresden,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  and 
Munich,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  noted  for  their  art-galleries ; 
Cologne,  the  chief   commercial  city  of   the  Rhine  Provinces; 


Frankfort,  the  depot  of  inland 
trade ;  Dantzic,  the  leading  grain 
port ;  and  Hamburg  and  Bremen, 
great  shipping  and  commercial 
centers. 

NETHERLANDS. 

1.  Situation.  —  The  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands,  commonly  called 
Holland,  occupies  the  lowest  part 
of  the  Western  Plain. 

Much  of  the  land  was  formerly  over- 
flowed by  the  sea  at  high  tide ;  but  it  has 
been  reclaimed  by  building  embankments 
called  dikes. 

2.  Foreign  Possessions.  —  Hol- 
land has  extensive  colonial  pos- 
sessions, the  population  of  which 
is  six  times  that  of  the  mother- 
country. 

The  principal  foreign  possessions  are, 
in  the  East  Indies,  Java  and  most  of  the 
Moluccas,  with  parts  of  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
and  Celebes ;  in  the  West  Indies,  Cura- 
50a  and  St.  Eustatius ;  in  South  America, 
Dutch  Guiana.  These  possessions,  es- 
pecially those  in  the  East  Indies,  have 
greatly  promoted  the  foreign  trade  of 
Holland. 

3.  Occupations.  —  Farming  and 
dairying,  the  fisheries,  manufacturing  and  commerce,  are  the 
leading  occupations. 

Commerce.— Holland  has  fine  commercial  facilities,  arising  from  its 
position  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and  its  harbors  on  the  North  Sea.  The 
internal  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  by  means  of  canals,  which  run  through 
the  principal  streets  of  the  cities,  and  extend  in  a  network  over  the  whole 
country.     The  foreign  commerce  is  very  large. 

4.  Population. —  The  people  of  Holland  belong  to  the  Teu- 
tonic race,  and  the  word  "  Dutch,"  the  name  by  which  they  are 
known,  signifies  Teutonic. 

5.  Government.  —  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

6.  Cities. — Amsterdam  is  the  chief  commercial  city  of 
Holland.  Rotterdam  is  the  second  city  in  population  and 
trade.     The  Hague  is  the  seat  of  government. 

BELGIUM. 

1.  Occupations.  —  Belgium  has  rich  mines  of  coal  and  iron, 
which  are  extensively  worked  ;  hence  it  is  naturally  a  manufac- 
turing country.     Agriculture  is  in  a  high  state  of  perfection. 

2.  Commerce. — The  principal  exports  are  agricultural  prod- 
uce and  manufactured  goods,  as  Jace,  lawn,  fine  linens  and 
cambrics,  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  carpets,  cutlery,  and  iron- 
ware. 

;      3.  Inhabitants.  —  The  Belgians  are,  in  race,  language,  and 
i  character,  intermediate  between  the  Dutch  and  the  French. 

4.  Government.  —  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

5.  Cities.  —  The  chief  cities  are  Brussels,  the  capital,  noted 
for  its  manufacture  of  laces,  carpets,  etc.  ;  Antwerp,  the  com- 
mercial metropolis ;  Ghent,  a  manufacturing  city ;  Liege,  which 
has  extensive  coal-mines  and  iron-works ;  and  Bruges,  an  im- 
portant manufacturing  and  commercial  point. 


82 


AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN    MONARCHY. 


AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN    MONARCHY. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

What  two  countries  north  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  ?  What 
principalities  border  it  on  the  east  and  south  ?  Ans.  Roumania  and 
Servia.  What  natural  boundary  has  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  on 
the  south?  What  natural  boundary  on  the  south-west?  What  countries 
border  it  on  the  west?  What  extensive  division  occupies  the  central  part 
of  this  monarchy?  What  important  division  borders  Hungary  on  the 
west  ?  Wnat  two  states  north  of  Austria  ?  What  states  south  of  Austria  ? 
What  south  of  Hungary?  East?  North?  What  mountain-ranges  sur- 
round Bohemia?  What  mountain-range  north  of  Hungary?  What  moun- 
tains south  of  Transylvania?  West?  North-east  of  Dalmatia?  What 
three  divisions  in  the  west  are  exceedingly  mountainous?  What  great 
river  traverses  this  monarchy?  Where  are  the  head-streams  of  the 
Danube  ?  Which  tributary  of  the  Danube  forms  a  partial  boundary  of 
this  monarchy?  What  is  the  principal  tributary  from  the  north?  From 
the  west  ?  What  river  forms  a  partial  boundary  on  the  north  ?  Where 
is  the  Dneister  River  ?  What  city  of  Austria  is  the  capital  of  this 
monarchy?  What  is  the  capital  of  Hungary?  Locate  Pesth.  Prague. 
Lemberg.  Gratz.  Brunn.  Szegedin.  Cracow.  What  is  the  principal 
seaport  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Its  Composition.  —  The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy, 
commonly  called  the  Austrian  Empire,  is  a  bipartite  state,  con- 
sisting of  the  kingdom  of  Austria  and  the  kingdom  of  Hungary. 

2.  Government.  —  Each  of  the  two  -countries  has  its  own 
government ;  but  they  are  united  by  the  fact  that  the  Emperor 
of  Austria  is  King  of  Hungary. 

3.  Population.  —  The  people  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
Austrian  Empire  differ  widely  in  race,  language,  manners,  and 
religion. 

About  one-half  of  the  population  belong  to  the  Slavonic  race,  and  one- 
fifth  to  the  Germanic ;  one-sixth  are  Magyars ;  and  the  rest  are  made 
up  of  Roumanians,  Jews,  Gypsies,  Greeks,  etc.  The  number  of 
languages  and  dialects  spoken  in  Austria  exceeds  twenty;  but  Ger- 
man and  Hungarian  are  the  official  languages. 

4  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  mining,  and  manu- 
facturing. 


RUSSIA,    SWEDEN   AND   NORWAY,    DENMARK,   AND   SPAIN. 


83 


BUDA-PESTH- CAPITAL  OF  HUNOARY. 

Agriculture.  —  Wheat,  maize,  and  other  cereals,  together  with  fhe  vine, 
flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco,  are  largely  grown.  The  plains  east  of  the  Danube 
support  great  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

Mining.  —  Platinum  excepted,  all  metals  abound  in  Austria,  —  gold,  silver, 
quicksilver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron.  Coal-beds  of  vast  extent  are  found. 
Of  rock-salt  there  is  a  bed  several  hundred  miles  in  length  in  Galicia,  of 
which  only  a  small  portion  is  worked  at  a  gigantic  mine  near  Cracow. 

Manufactures.  —  The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen 
goods,  iron-ware,  chemical  preparations,  and  glass-ware.  Hungary  produces 
more  wine  than  any  other  country  except  France. 

5.  Commerce.  — The  principal  exports  are  wheat,  wool,  wine, 
linen,  cotton,  and  leather  goods,  glass-ware  and  iron-ware. 

Two-thirds  of  the  whole  commerce  is  with  Germany.  As  Austria  has 
but  little  seacoast,  her  direct  foreign  trade  is  limited.  The  Danube 
is  the  great  channel  for  internal  trade. 

6.  Cities. — Vienna,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  the  chief 
seat  of  manufactures  and  domestic  commerce.  Buda,  on  the 
Danube,  is  the  capital  of  Hungary.  Pesth,  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  that  river,  is  the  largest  city  in  that  kingdom.  Prague, 
in  Bohemia,  ranks  as  the  third  city  in  size  in  the  empire. 
Trieste  is  the  chief  seaport. 

RUSSIA  IN   EUROPE. 

1.  European  Russia  comprises  about  one-half  of  Europe, 
and  occupies  most  of  the  Eastern  Plain. 

2.  Russian  Empire.  —  The  Russian  Empire  is,  next  to  the 
British  Empire,  the  largest  dominion  in  the  world.  It  includes, 
besides  its  European  possessions,  more  than  one-third  of  Asia. 

The  Russian  Empire  has  an  area  of  8,500,000  square  miles,  or  more 
than  double  that  of  the  United  States.  Its  population  is  about 
85,000,000,  or  nearly  twice  that  of  the  United  States.  The  Russians 
belong  chiefly  to  the  Slavonic  race. 

3.  Occupations. — The  majority  of  the  population  of  Russia 
are  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits,  and  dwell  in  villages  spread 
thinly  over  the  vast  area  of  the  empire.  The  only  articles  in  the 
manufacture  of  which  Russia  can  successfully  compete  with  other 
countries  are  iron,  leather,  soap,  sail-cloth,  cordage,  and  tar. 

4.  Commerce.  —  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  wheat  and 
other  grains,  timber,  flax  and  flaxseed,  wool,  hemp,  and  cattle. 

The  most  important  customer  which  Russia  has  is  Great  Britain,  and 
the  chief  export  to  th.at  country  is  wheat.  The  imports  come  mainly 
from  Great  Britain  and  Germany.  There  is  also  with  China  a  large 
overland  tmde,  the  principal  item  in  which  is  tea. 


The  inland  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  at  great  annual  fairs :  that  at 
Nijni  Novgorod  is  the  largest  in  the  world. 

5.  Government.  —  The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy, 
under  an  emperor  called  the  Czar  (a  corruption  of  the  name 
Caesar),  who  is  head  both  of  Church  and  State. 

6.  Cities.  —  St.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  situated  on  a  number 
of  small  islands  in  the  Neva,  is  the  metropolis  of  the  empire. 
Moscow,  formerly  the  capital,  is  the  second  city  in  size.  War- 
saw is  the  chief  city  of  Polish  Russia. 

The  principal  seaports  are  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea,  the 
great  southern  emporium  ;  Riga  on  the  Baltic  ;  and  Cronstadt, 
the  seaport  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  chief  naval  station. 

SWEDEN    AND  NORWAY. 

1.  Their  Relation. —  Sweden  and  Norway,  which  are  sepa- 
rate though  adjoining  countries,  are  united  under  one  king. 

2.  Government.  —  The  government  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
is  a  limited  monarchy  :  each  country  has  its  own  legislature. 

In  Sweden  the  legislative  assembly  is  called  the  Diet;  in  Norway,  the 
Storthing. 

3.  Natural  Wealth. — The  natural  wealth  of  Sweden  and 
Norway  is  found  in  their  mines,  forests,  and  fisheries. 

4.  Commerce.  —  The  principal  exports  of  Sweden  are  tim- 
ber, bar-iron,  and  grain  ;  of  Norway,  timber  and  fish. 

5.  Cities.  —  Stockholm,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  foreign  commerce.  Gottenburg,  next  in 
size,  is  an  important  manufacturing  and  shipping  point. 

Christiania,  the  capital  of  Norway,  is  the  chief  seat  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  that  kingdom.  Bergen,  the  second  city,  is  the 
chief  depot  of  the  fisheries.  Hammerfest  is  the  most  north- 
ern town  in  Europe. 

DENMARK. 

1.  Description.  —  Denmark  consists  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland  and  of  the  adjacent  islands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Baltic,  the  largest  being  Zealand  and  Fiinen. 

2.  Industries. — Denmark  is  mainly  an  agricultural  and 
grazing  country  ;  but  many  Danes  are  engaged  in  the  fisheries, 
or  in  a  seafaring  life. 

3.  Population,  etc.  —  The  people  of  Denmark  are  of  Teu- 
tonic origin,  consisting  of  Danes,  Germans,  and  Angles.  The 
government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

4.  Cities.  —  Copenhagen,  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  is  the 
capital  and  chief  commercial  city.  It  is  also  noted  for  its  great 
university  and  fine  museum.  Odense,  on  the  island  of  Fiinen, 
ranks  second  in  importance. 

Colonies.  —  The  colonial  possessions  of  Denmark  include  Iceland  and 
Greenland  (described  under  Danish  America),  together  with  several  small 
islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

SPAIN. 

1.  Natural  Wealth.  —  Spain  is  rich  in  iron,  lead,  and  quick- 
silver. It  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  a  climate  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  the  vine,  olive,  orange,  and  fig. 

2.  Industries. — On  the  table-lands  are  pastured  great  herds 
of  sheep,  which  produce  large  quantities  of  fine  merino  wool. 
The  mulberry  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  much  silk  is  pro- 
duced.    The  vine,  also,  is  largely  cultivated. 

3.  The  chief  exports  are  sherry-wine,  wool,  metals,  fruits 
and  dried  fruits,  silk,  leather,  and  cork. 


84 


PORTUGAL,    ITALY,   AND   GREECE. 


ST.   PETER'S  AT  ROME. 


4.  Cities.  —  Madrid  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.     Barce- 
lona is  the  principal  manufacturing  and  commercial  city. 
I.  The  foreign  possessions  of  Spain  are  :  the  Balearic  Isles,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean;  Ceuta,  in  Africa,  opposite  Gibraltar;  Fernando  Po  and 
Annabon,  off  the  coast  of  Guinea  ;  the  Canary  Isles,  in  the  Atlantic; 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Pinos,  which  are  West  India  Islands  ;  and 
the  Philippines,  Ladrones,  and  Carolinas,  in  the  Pacific. 
II.  Gibraltar,  on  a  rock  of  the  same  name,  belongs  to  the   English,  who 
have  held  it  since  1704.     This  rocky  fortress  commands  the  entrance 
to  the  Mediterranean. 

PORTUGAL. 

1.  Industries.  —  The  leading  pursuit  in  Portugal  is  the  cul- 
ture of  the  vine,  from  which  port-wine  is  produced,  and  of 
the  olive  and  semi-tropical  fruits,  such  as  oranges,  lemons, 
and  figs.     The  trade  of  Portugal  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain. 

The  single  article  wine  constitutes  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  value 
of  Portuguese  exports  to  all  countries.  The  other  exports  are  cattle, 
cork,  olive-oil,,and  oranges  and  lemons. 

2.  Cities. — Lisbon  is  the  capital.  Oporto  is  the  chief  seat 
of  the  trade  in  port-wine,  to  which  it  gives  its  name. 

ITALY. 

1.  Natural  Wealth.  —  The  natural  advantages  possessed  by 
Italy  are  a  fertile  soil  finely  adapted  to  the  growth  of  semi- 
tropical  productions,  its  extensive  fisheries,  valuable  minerals, 
and  admirable  situation  for  commerce. 

2.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  manufacturing, 
and  the  fisheries. 

Agriculture.  —  Wheat  and  the  vine,  olive,  and  mulberry  are  extensively 
cultivated  throughout  Italy.  Oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and  other  semi-tropical 
fruits,  flourish  in  the  southern  part 

Manufactures.  —  The  silk  manufactures  of  Italy  are  the  most  important 
in  Europe,  and  are  one  of  the  great  sources  of  national  wealth.  Of  the 
other  manufactures,  those  of  earthen-ware,  straw  goods,  artificial  flowers, 
olive-oil,  and  macaroni  are  of  special  importance. 

The  coast  fishery  employs  large  numbers  of  Italians.  Tunny  and  an- 
chovies are  caught  in  immense  quantities,  and  the  latter  are  exported  to  all 
parts  of  the  world. 


3.  Exports. — Among  the  characteristic  exports  of  Italy  are 
silks,  olive-oil,  wine  and  cordials,  fruits,  sulphur,  and  macaroni. 

4.  Government. —  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

5.  Cities. — Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy,  is  often  called  the 
"  Eternal  City."  It  was  founded  over  twenty-five  hundred  years 
ago,  and  was  for  a  thousand  years  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
power.  .  Every  part  of  Rome  contains  remains  of  temples, 
baths,  tombs,  arches,  and  columns  that  excite  admiration  by 
their  massiveness  and  the  beauty  of  their  design.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  Pope.  The  Church  of  St.  Peter's  is  the  finest 
building  in  the  world.  Naples,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  is  the  largest  city.  Milan  is  noted  for  its 
silk  manufactures.  Florence  and  Turin  are  famous  for  their 
museums  of  art.  Genoa  is  an  important  commercial  point. 
Venice  is  built  on  a  hundred  small  islands,  and  is  intersected 
by  canals. 

GREECE. 

1.  Industries.  —  A  large  part  of  the  population  is  engaged 
in  raising  sheep  and  goats  in  the  mountain  districts  ;  agriculture 
is  carried  on  in  the  rudest  manner.  In  the  "  Isles  of  Greece  " 
multitudes  of  sailors  are  trained. 

2.  Exports.  —  The  leading  exports  are  olive-oil,  silk,  honey, 
tobacco,  currants,  and  other  fruits. 

3.  Cities.  —  Athens  is  the  capital  and  chief  city.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  king  and  court,  has  important  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  is  a  place  of  active  local  trade.  Its  seaport  is 
the  Piraeus.  Syra  is  the  principal  seat  of  commerce.  Corfu 
and  Zante  are  important  cities. 

I.  In  the  time  of  the  glory  of  Greece,  Athens  was  the  center  of  art 
and  learning.  It  contained  magnificent  works  of  architecture,  the 
ruins  of  which  still  exist.  The  most  beautiful  building  was  the 
Parthenon,  which  stood  on  the  Acropolis,  a  considerable  elevation 
in  the  city. 
II.  For  several  centuries  previous  to  1821  Greece  was  a  part  of  the  Turkish 
Empire ;  the  Greeks  then  revolted,  and  after  a  long  struggle  suc- 
ceeded, with  the  assistance  of  the  European  powers,  in  establishing 
their  independence.     Greece  is  now  a  monarchy. 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY,   ROUMANIA,   SERVIA,   AND   MONTENEGRO. 


85 


«HCf^A 


QUESTIONS   ON  THE   MAP. 

European  Turkey. — What  two  straits  and  what  sea  form  the  dividing 
line  between  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey  ?  What  three  seas  on  the  east  ? 
What  country  south  ?  What  sea  on  the  west  ?  Name  some  islands  in  the 
Archipelago.  What  large  island  south  .'  What  mountain-range  in  Turkey 
north  of  Greece  ?  What  famous  mountain  east  of  the  Pindus  Range  ? 
What  great  city  in  European  Turkey  is  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  Empire  ? 
What  city  north-west  of  Constantinople  ?  On  the  Dardanelles  ?  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  Vardar  River? 

The  Danubian  Principalities.  —  What  five  principalities  north  of  European 
Turkey?  Which  three  of  these  are  independent  ?  Ans.  Roumania,  Servia, 
and  Montenegro.  Which  are  semi-independent?  Ans.  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia.  What  great  river  with  its  tributaries  drains  these  divisions  ? 
Name  the  capital  of  Roumania.  Of  Bulgaria.  Eastern  Roumelia.  Servia. 
Montenegro. 

EUROPEAN  TURKEY. 

1.  European  Turkey  comprises  the  region  from  the  Danu- 
bian Principalities  southward  to  Greece. 

2.  Industries. — The  soil  is  not  extensively  cultivated,  and 
agriculture  is  carried  on  in  a  very  rude  manner.  The  raising 
of  cattle  and  sheep  is  more  general  than  the  culture  of  the  soil. 

The  Turks  are  not  a  manufacturing  people,  though  they  pro- 
duce fine  cotton  and  silk  goods,  and  leather  of  a  superior  quality. 


3.  Commerce.  —  The  commerce  is  considerable,  but  is  mostly 
in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  chief  exports  are  wool,  tobacco, 
cotton,  dried  fruits,  carpets,  leather,  horses,  cattle,  and  hides. 

4.  Race,  etc.  — The  Turks  belong  to  the  Mongolian  type,  and 
came  from  Asia  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  are  the  ruling 
race,  though  they  constitute  but  a  small  part  of  the  population. 
The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  emperor  is 
styled  the  Sultan. 

5.  Cities.  —  Constantinople,   the    capital,   on    the    Bosporus, 
is  one  of  the  most  finely  situated  of  cities.     Adrianople  is  the* 
principal    seat    of    the    silk,    cotton,    and    wool    manufactures. 
Salonica  is  the  second  seaport  in  importance,  and  is  noted  for 
its  cotton  and  leather  manufactures. 

BULGARIA  AND  EAST  ROUMELIA. 

Bulgaria  and  East  Roumelia,  till  the  Berlin  treaty  (1878),  formed  parts 
of  the  Turkish  Empire,  but  are  now  independent  in  internal  organization, 
though  they  must  pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 

ROUMANIA,  SERVIA,  AND    MONTENEGRO. 

Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro  were,  till  1878,  parts  of 
the  Turkish  Empire,  but  are  now  independent  sovereignties. 


*       0       R       T       H 


TEMPERATE 


2       O       N       E 


TORRID 


ZONE 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   PHYSICAL  MAP. 


87 


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88 


PHYSICAL    ASIA. 


DESCRIPTION, 


[Area.  17.212,000  square  mites. 
Population,  795,000,000.] 

SITUATION,  EXTENT,  AND  OUT- 
LINE. 

1.  Situation.  —  Asia  forms  the  main 
continental  mass  of  the  Eastern  Con- 
tinent, Europe  and  Africa  being  merely 
great  peninsulas. 

2.  Extent.  —  Asia  is  the  largest  of 
the  grand  divisions,  comprising  one- 
third  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
globe. 

3.  Outline.  —  The  coast  is  deeply 
indented  on  every  side,  though  not  to 
the  same  degree  as  that  of  Europe. 

II.    SURFACE. 

4.  Natural  Divisions.  —  The  sur- 
face of  Asia  is  naturally  divided  into 
three  parts  :  Lowland  Asia,  Highland 
Asia,  and  the  great  southern  penin- 
sulas. 

5.  Lowland  Asia  is  principally 
comprised  in  the  great  Plain  of  Sibe- 
ria and  the  Plain  of  Turkestan.  It 
extends  from  Behring  Strait  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  to  the  low  level  of 
the  Caspian  Sea. 

6.  Highland  Asia  includes  the  vast 
region  between  Lowland  and  peninsu- 
lar Asia,  and  extends  from  the  Plateau 
of  Arabia  in  the  south-west  to  Kamt- 
chatka  in  the  north-east. 

7.  Its  Character.  —  In  this  belt  are 
the  loftiest  mountain-chains  and  the 
most  elevated  plateaus  on  the  globe. 
The  great  mass  of  Central  Asia,  com- 
prising three-fifths  of  the  whole,  con- 
sists of  high  plateaus,  intersected  by 


mountain-ranges,  some  of  whose  peaks 
rise  to  a  height  of  five  miles. 

From  the  central  plateaus  the  sur- 
face descends  by  a  series  of  slopes  to 
the  vast  Plain  of  Siberia  on  the 
north,  the  Plain  of  China  on  the  east, 
and  to  the  great  peninsulas  on  the 
south. 

8.  Mountain-Systems.  —  The  nu- 
cleus of  the  mountain-systems  of  Asia 
is  on  the  Plateau  of  Thibet,  called  by 
the  Orientals  "  the  roof  of  the  world." 
The  principal  mountain-chains  radiat- 
ing from  this  center  are  divided  into 
four  groups:  (1)  the  Altai  System; 
(2)  the  Hindoo  Koosh ;  (3)  the  Hima- 
layas ;  and  (4)  the  Armenian  Group. 

The  Altai  System  separates  the  Plain  of 
Siberia  from  the  Plateau  of  Mongolia. 

The  Hindoo  Koosh,  with  its  eastward  ex- 
tension the  Kuen  Lun  Mountains,  separates 
the  Desert  of  Gobi  from  the  Plateau  of  Thibet, 
and  divides  the  Plain  of  Turkestan  from  the 
Plateau  of  Iran. 

The  Himalayas,  from  the  extreme  western 
point  (where  the  Indus  cuts  through  the  sys- 
tem) to  the  Brahmapootra,  are  2,000  miles 
in  length,  with  an  average  breadth  of  nearly 
200  miles.  In  the  middle  of  the  range  rises 
the  stupendous  peak  of  Mount  Everest  (or 
Gaurisankar)  29,002  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
with  several  others  of  slightly  less  elevation. 

The  Armenian  Group,  of  which  Mount 
Ararat  is  the  culminating  point,  lies  in  parallel 
folds  at  the  head  of  the  Plateau  of  Asia  Minor, 
between  the  Caspian,  the  Black,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean seas. 

9.  Plateaus.  —  The  principal  pla- 
teaus are:  Thibet,  from  15,000  to 
16,000  feet  in  altitude  ;  Mongolia  and 
the  Desert  of  Gobi;  Iran  (Persia),  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  Deccan. 


•  TiCER  HUNT  IN  (NOIA 

ANIMALS   OF  ASIA. 


PHYSICAL  ASIA. 


89 


1 1.   Climate  and 
Vegetation. — The 
climate  of  Asia  is 
couttuental,  tiiat 
is,  it  is  subject  to 
great  extremes  of  heat  and 

cold;  and  the  temperature  is 

not  modified  to  so  great  an  extent  as 

in  Europe  by  the  influence  of  the  ocean. 
Asia  is   divided   into  three  zones  of  climate  and  vegetation,  —  Li.c 
southern  or  tropical,  the  middle  or  temperate,  and  the  northern  or  cold, 
principal  characteristics  of  each  are  presented  in  the  following  table :  — 


COUNTRIES. 


Southern  Zone  . 


Central  Zone 


Northern  Zone  . 


The  southern  peninsulas, 
Arabia  India,  Indo- 
China,  and  part  of  China. 


I.  The  vast  plateau  region, 
including  most  of  China. 
2.  Turkestan.  3.  Af- 
ghanistan. 4.  Persia. 
5.  Turkey. 

I .  The  greater  part  of  Si- 
beria.   2.  Kamtchatka. 


CLIMATE. 


Tropical. 


Marked  by  the  four  sea- 
sons, with  regular 
changes  from  one  to 
the  other. 

Marked  by  long,  cold  win- 
ters, and  short  sum- 
mers. 


VEGETATION. 


Rice,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and 
tropical  fruits;  the  poppy 
(opium)  and  spices;  the 
palm,  bamboo,  and  huge 
banyan. 

Tea,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
and  the  fruits  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zone.  Forest  trees : 
oak,  pine,  etc. 

The  usual  scanty  vegetation 
of  the  Arctic  Zone. 


12.  Animals.  —  Among  the  characteristic  animals  of  Asia  are  the  tiger, 
elephant,  and  rhinoceros  ;    the  tapir,  buffalo,  and  camel  ;    many  species  of 
monkeys,  pheasants,  and  peacocks ;  together  with  the  crocodile  and  the  python, 
a  great  snake. 

13.   Civilization.  —  The  extreme  northern  zone  is  thinly  inhabited  by    ^.i 

.jie^^-^^^     hunters  and  fishermen,  and  the  great  central  plateaus  can  support  only  a 

^jjv^I^iw  nomadic  or  semi-civilized  population.    The  fertile  plains  of  China  and  tropi-  "  I 

^''  y  cal  Asia  are  the  great  seats  of  population,  and  are  rich  in  natural  resources. 

In  this  region,  civilized  nations  have  existed  for  thousands  of  years ;  but  this  civilization 

has  long  been  stationary,  /te^.     and  the  swarms  of  common 


people  are  ignorant 


and  degraded. 


F^ir> 


VICETATION 


NORTH     TEMPERATE     ZONE 


POLITICAL  ASIA. 


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92 


ASIATIC   RUSSIA,   CHINA,  AND  JAPAN. 


DESCRIPTION. 


ASIATIC    RUSSIA. 
I.  Divisions.  —  Asiatic  Russia  comprises  the  vast  region  of 
Siberia,  together  with  Russian  Turkestan  and  Trans-Caucasia. 

1.  Siberia,  larger  in  area  than  Europe,  occupies  the  whole  of  the  great 

Northern  Plain  of  Asia.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  steppes  and 
marshes,  across  which  the  Obi,  Yenesei,  and  Lena  Rivers  wind  their 
sluggish  way  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  climate  is  very  cold,  except 
in  the  southern  part ;  and  winter  reigns  more  than  half  the  year. 
II.  Russian  Turkestan  extends  from  the  Altai  and  Thian  Shan  Moun- 
tains westward  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 
HI.  Trans-Caucasia  includes  the  country  lying  between  the  Caucasus  Moun- 
tains (a  dividing-line  between  Europe  and  Asia)  and  Asiatic  Turkey. 
The  Caucasus  range  rises  above  the  snow-line,  and  Elburz,  its  high- 
est summit,  reaches  18,572  feet.  In  the  southern  part,  on  the  border 
of  Persia  and  Turkey,  is  Mount  Ararat,  17,200  feet  high. 

2.  Siberia.  —  Siberia  has  numerous  animals  whose  furs  are 
valuable,  as  the  seal  and  the  ermine  ;  its  waters  abound  in  fish  ; 
and  the  rich  mines  yield  gold,  silver,  copper,  platinum,  and  iron. 
There  is  a  large  overland  tea-trade  with  China. 

Of  the  population,  of  about  four  millions,  three-fourths  consist  of 
Mongolian  tribes,  savage  and  degraded ;  while  Russian  exiles  and 
their  descendants,  together  with  Russian  troops  and  officials,  consti- 
tute the  remainder. 

Irkutsk,  Tobolsk,  and  Tomsk,  are  the  chief  places.  Kiachta 
is  the  entrepot  of  trade  with  China. 

3.  Russian  Turkestan.  —  Russian  Turkestan  contains  several 
petty  states  called  Khanates  :  the  most  important  are  Bokhara 
and  Khiva,  with  cities  of  the  same  names.  Bokhara,  from  its 
caravan  trade,  is  an  important  point  in  Central  Asia. 

4.  Trans-Caucasia.  —  The  people  of  Trans-Caucasia  belong 
to  the  Caucasian  race,  and  are  much  celebrated  (especially  the 
women)  for  their  beauty.  The  trade  consists  in  the  export  of 
wine,  silk,  furs,  honey,  and  cattle,  in  exchange  for  arms,  salt, 
and  European  manufactured  goods. 

Tiflis  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 

CHINESE   EMPIRE. 

1.  Extent  and  Population.  —  The  territory  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  is  larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  its  population 
(about  400,000,000)  numbers  one-third  that  of  the  globe. 

2.  Divisions.  —  This  vast  empire  includes  China  Proper,  with 
Mantchooria,  Mongolia,  Soongaria,  Thibet,  and  Corea. 

3.  Inhabitants.  —  The  inhabitants  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
all  belong  to  the  Mongol  race,  though  they  present  great  differ- 
ences of  appearance  in  the  several  parts  of  the  empire. 

4.  The  leading  industries  are  agriculture,  comprising  the 
production  of  rice  and  millet  for  food,  and  of  tea  and  silk  for 
domestic  use  and  export ;  and  manufactures,  which  are  con- 
fined principally  to  cotton  cloths,  silks,  shawls,  porcelain,  and 
carved  ivory. 

Tea.  —  The  tea-plant  is  an  evergreen  shrub  growing  five  or  six  feet  high. 
The  leaves  are  gathered,  and  dried  in  shallow  pans  placed  over  charcoal 
fires.  Tea  has  been  used  in  China  as  a  drink  from  time  immemorial.  It 
was  introduced  into  Europe  about  two  hundred  years  ago,  and  has  become 
a  universal  beverage. 

Silk.  —  The  art  of  rearing  silk-worms  and  of  unraveling  the  threads  of 
cocoons  was  first  practiced  by  the  Chinese.  From  China  the  silk  culture 
extended  to  Hindostan,  thence  to  Greece,  next  to  Italy,  France,  and  Spain, 


and  finally  to  California,  completing  the  circuit  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
globe.  Silk  is  a  common  article  of  dress  in  China  for  men  as  well  as  for 
women.     Chinese  silk  is  all  woven  in  hand-looms. 

5.  Commerce.  —  The  internal  trade  is  immense,  and  is  car- 
ried on  by  means  of  the  great  rivers  and  long  canals.  The 
foreign  trade  is  limited  chiefly  to  exporting  tea,  silk,  rice,  etc. 

6.  Government  and  Religion. — The  government  of  China 
is  an  absolute  and  despotic  monarchy.  The  emperor  is  regarded 
as  the  representative  of  Deity,  and  as  the  supreme  master  of 
the  lives  and  fortunes  of  his  subjects.  The  religion  most  prev- 
alent is  Buddhism,  there  styled  the  religion  of  Fo. 

Civilization.  —  The  Chinese  are  a  people  remarkable  for  their  extreme 
dislike  to  any  kind  of  innovation.  They  appear  to  have  attained  at  a  very 
early  period  to  a  certain  degree  of  civilization,  and  were  acquainted  with 
many  discoveries,  arts,  and  appliances  which  have  been  thought  modern, 
as  the  mariner's  compass,  the  use  of  gunpowder,  the  arts  of  printing,  paper- 
making,  etc.  But  they  have  advanced  little  beyond  the  condition  in  which 
they  were  two  thousand  years  ago.  Education  is  compulsory,  and  learning 
is  the  necessary  qualification  for  obtaining  office,  or  arriving  at  distinction 
of  any  kind.  But  the  education  is  merely  one  of  form  and  routine,  in  which 
the  memory  is  the  principal  object  of  cultivation. 

7-  Subject  Countries.  —  Thibet,  Mongolia,  and  Mantchooria 
are  vast  and  thinly  inhabited  regions,  chiefly  occupied  by  pas- 
toral tribes  whose  chiefs  own,  in  many  cases,  only  a  nominal 
subjection  to  the  Chinese  government.  Corea  is  a  separate 
kingdom  under  its  own  sovereign,  but  tributary  to  China. 

8.  Cities.  —  Peking,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  unpaved 
and  undrained,  with  filthy,  narrow  streets,  and  low,  mean  houses. 
Shanghai  is  the  first,  and  Canton  the  second  city,  in  foreign 
commerce.  Yo-Chow  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  domestic  com- 
merce, and  Kin-te-ching  of  the  porcelain  manufacture. 

JAPAN. 

1.  Japan  is  an  island  empire. 

Japan  (in  the  native  language  Dai  Nippon)  consists  of  four  large  and 
many  small  islands. 

2.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture,  horticulture,  and  various 
manufactures,  are  carried  on  with  much  skill.  The  principal 
exports  are  tea  and  silks,  lacquered  ware,  bronzes,  and  wood 
carvings. 

3.  Government.  —  The  government  is  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy,  under  an  emperor  called  the  Mikado. 

4.  Civilization.  —  The  Japanese  are  the  most  highly  civil- 
ized and  the  most  progressive  people  of  the  Mongol  race.  They 
are  now  rapidly  introducing  railroads,  telegraphs,  and  improved 
machinery  of  all  kinds,  and  have  public  and  scientific  schools 
under  European  and  American  instruction. 

Japan,  like  China,  kept  itself  aloof  for  ages  from  other  nations  ;  but  in 
1854  the  United  States  sent  a  large  naval  e.vpedition,  under  command 
of  Commodore  Perry,  who  induced  the  Japanese  Government  to 
make  a  treaty  by  which  the  ports  of  Simoda  and  Hakodadi  were 
opened  for  trade,  and  by  which  United  States  consuls  were  allowed 
to  reside  in  Japan.  A  little  later  similar  privileges  were  allowed  to 
England,  France,  and  Russia. 

5.  Cities.  —  Tokio  is  the  capital  and  largest  city,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  the  domestic  trade.  Yokohama,  its  seaport,  is 
the  chief  seat  of  the  foreign  trade.  Kioto  and  Osaka  are  large 
and  important  cities. 


INDO-CHINA.  — BRITISH    INDIA. 


93 


INDO-CHINA. 

1.  Divisions.  —  Indo-China  is  chief- 
ly divided  between  three  native  states, 
—  the  Kingdom  of  Burmah,  the  King- 
dom of  Siam,  and  the  Empire  of 
Anam. 

In  addition  to  these  countries,  Indo-China 
includes  British  Burmah,  Lower  Cochin- 
China  (a  dependency  of  France),  and 
several  petty  native  states. 

2.  Inhabitants.  —  The  Indo-Chinese 
form  a  race  intermediate  between  the 
Hindoos  and  the  Chinese.  They  are 
below  both  the  Hindoo  and  Chinese 
in  industrial  skill,  and  have  made  less 
progress  in  civilization.  In  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  peninsula  the  people 
belong  to  the  Malay  race. 

3.  Government.  —  The  native  gov- 
ernments are  of  the  most  despotic 
kind,  the  laws  sanguinary,  and  the 
mass  of  the  people  in  a  state  of  ab- 
solute slavery. 

Buddhism  is  the  prevailing  religion. 

4.  Commerce.  —  All  the  Indo-Chinese  coun- 
tries carry  on  an  extensive  trade  with  China,  and 
also  with  British  India.  This  is  chiefly  a  maritime 
traffic,  though  the  Burmese  have  a  large  overland 
intercourse  with  China. 

The  principal  exports  are  timber  and  orna- 
mental woods,  raw  silk  and  cotton,  gums,  wax, 
cardamoms,  and  edible  birds'- nests. 

5.  Cities. — The  principal  cities  are  Bankok, 
the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Siam  ;  Mandalay, 
the  capital  of  Burmah  ;  and  Hu6,  the  capital  of 
Anam.  Saigon  is  the  chief  seat  of  French  power 
in  Indo-China. 

In  Bankok,  the  largest  city  of  Indo-China,  half  the  pop- 
ulation live  on  bamboo  rafts,  arranged  like  streets. 


ASIATIC  RACES. 


BRITISH    INDIA. 

I.  Divisions.  —  British  India  com- 
prises the  greater  part  of  Hindostan 
(generally  called  India),  British  Bur- 
mah, and  the  Straits  Settlements. 

1.  The  name  Hindostan,  strictly  speaking, 
is  confined  to  the  Great  Plain  of  the 
Ganges  and  Indus,  but  is  commonly 
applied  to  the  whole  of  India. 

The  parts  not  under  British  dominion 
include  three  independent  states,  — 
Cashmere,  Nepal,  and  Bootan,  —  and 
various  "  Protected  States." 
II.  British  Burmah  consists  of  an  extensive 
tract  along  the  west  coast  of  Indo-China. 
III.  The  Straits  Settlements  comprise  the 
three  territories  of  Penang  island,  Ma- 
lacca, and  Singapore,  and  form  a  sepa- 
rate British  colony. 

2.  Hindostan,  or  India,  the  central 
peninsula  of  Asia  northward  to  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  has  an  area 
half  as  great  as  that  of  the  United 
States. 

3.  Inhabitants. —  India  is  inhabited 
'f                by  about  255,000,000  of  people,  most 

of  whom  are  Hindoos,  and  belong  to  the  Cauca- 
sian race. 

4.  Government.  —  India  is  under  the  rule  of  a 
Viceroy  appointed  by  the  Queen  of  England,  who 
is  "Empress  of  India." 

The  British  maintain  their  power  by  a  standing  army 
made  up  mostly  of  natives,  or  Sepoys,  commanded  by  Eng- 
lish officers.  Brahminism  is  the  prevailing  religion ;  but 
there  are  many  Buddhists,  and  some  Mohammedans  and 
Parsees.  The  sacred  books  of  the  Brahminic  religion, 
called  the  Vedas,  were  written  at  least  twenty-five  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era. 

5.  Occupations.  —  Agriculture   is   the  leading 
industry.     The  great  staples  are  rice,  which  is  the 
principal  article  of   food,  and  cotton,  jute,  silk, 
opium,  and  indigo,  which  are  raised  for  export. 


$4 


POLITICAL  ASIA. 


Fine  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  with  shawls  and  various  articles 
of  ornamental  attire,  constitute  the  chief  products  of  Indian 
manufacturing  skill.  " 

6.  Commerce.  —  The  importation  of  manufactured  goods 
(principally  from  England),  and  the  export  of  raw  produce 
(chiefly  cotton,  opium,  indigo,  and  rice),  are  the  distinguishing 
features  of  Indian  commerce. 

The  recent  introduction  of  railroads  has  greatly  aided  in 
developing  the  inland  trade. 

7.  Cities.  —  Calcutta  is  the  capita]  of  British  India,  and  the 
chief  seat  of  commerce.  Bombay  is  the  largest  city,  and  the 
principal  port  for  the  English  and  French  lines  of  steamers  by 
way  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Madras  is  the  principal  city  on  the 
south-east  coast.  Singapore  (in  the  Straits  Settlements),  on  the 
island  of  the  same  name,  is  one  of  the  most  important  commer- 
cial stations  in  Southern  Asia. 

The  possession  of  Singapore  and  the  two  otlier  Straits  Settlements 
gives  the  British  the  command  of  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  the  direct 
line  of  communication  with  China  and  Japan. 

AFGHANISTAN  AND  BELOOCHISTAN. 

1.  Description.  —  These  countries  occupy  a  high  desert  pla- 
teau, traversed  by  mountain-ridges,  and  dotted  with  oases.  The 
fertile  parts  comprise  several  khanates,  inhabited  by  a  settled 
population ;  but  the  majority  of  the  people  consists  of  fierce, 
wandering,  and  warlike  tribes,  who  live  in  tents,  and  depend  for 
subsistence  mainly  on  their  herds  of  horses,  goats,  asses,  and 
camels. 

2.  Cities.  —  Cabul  is  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Afgha- 
nistan. Herat  is  a  great  center  of  caravan  traffic,  and  is  im- 
portant from  its  situation  on  the 
main  route  from  Western  Asia  to 
India.  Kelat  is  the  capital  and 
largest  place  in  Beloochistan. 

PERSIA. 

1.  Description.  —  The  great- 
er part  of  Persia  is  a  plateau, 
marked  by  sandy  and  salt  des- 
erts ;  but  along  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  the  Caspian  Sea  is  a 
lowland  region. 

2.  Inhabitants.  —  Of  its  popu- 
lation of  five  millions,  about  one- 
third  are  wandering  shepherds ; 
the  remainder  are  a  tolerably 
civilized  people,  who  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  and  manu- 
factures. 

3.  Commerce.  —  The  chief 
exports  are  silks,  shawls,  car- 
pets, pearls,  rose-water,  and  as- 
safetida. 

4.  Government.  —  The  gov- 
ernment is  a  monarchy,  under  ; 
ruler  called  the  Shah,  and  is  less 
despotic  in  its  administration 
than  most  of  the  other  Asiatic 
governments. 


KHYBER  PASS,   BETWEEN   INDIA  AND  AFGHANISTAN. 


Considerable  progress  has  recently  been  made  in  civilization  in  Per- 
sia :  railroads  and  telegraphs  have  been  introduced,  and  efforts  to 
promote  education  hav?  been  made. 

5.  Cities.  —  Teheran  is  the  capital ;  Tabreez,  the  chief 
seat  of  commerce  ;  Bushire,  the  chief  seaport. 

ARABIA. 

1.  Physical  Features.  —  Arabia  consists  of  an  interior  pla- 
teau with  fertile  valleys,  of  extensive  deserts  in  the  north  and 
south,  and  of  a  narrow  belt  of  lowland  along  the  greater  part 
of  the  coast,  mostly  arid,  but  containing  some  productive  re- 
gions. 

2.  Inhabitants.  —  The  Arabs  are  divided  between  dwellers 
in  towns,  and  inhabitants  of  the  desert. 

The  latter,  called  Bedouins,  constitute  numerous  tribes,  each  under  its 
own  chief,  or  sheik.  They  lead  a  wandering  life,  changing  the  site 
of  their  encampment  according  to  the  necessity  of  finding  pasturage 
for  their  flocks.  The  Bedouins  look  with  contempt  upon  the  settled 
pursuits  of  those  who  live  in  towns. 

3.  Divisions.  —  The  settled  or  civilized  part  of  Arabia  in- 
cludes several  political  divisions,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  Hedjaz  and  Yemen  on  the  western  coast,  Oman  on  the 
south-eastern  coast,  and  !^fedjed  in  the  interior. 

I.  Hedjaz,  or  the  land  of  pilgrimage,  is  a  province  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 
It  contains  the  two  sacred  Mohammedan  cities,  Mecca  and  Medina. 
II.  Yemen,  occupying  the  remainder  of  the  Red  Sea  coast,  is  the  most 
fertile  part  of  Arabia.     It  is  under  Turkish  dominion. 

III.  Oman,  occupying  the  region  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Indian 

Ocean,  is  divided  among  several  native  rulers,  the  most  powerful  of 
whom  is  the  Sultan  of  Oman  (commonly  called  the  Imam  of  Muscat). 

IV.  Nedjed  is  the  most  important  of  the  native  states,  and  is  ruled  by  a 

-    "  ^  "  "    -it  breed  of  Arabian  horses. 

4.  Commerce.  —  The  princi- 
pal exports  of  Arabia  are  coffee, 
dates,  gum-arabic,  myrrh,  frank- 
incense, some  aromatic  and  me- 
dicinal drugs,  and  pearls. 

The  traffic  of  the  country  is  con- 
siderable, and  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  caravans.  The  camel  is  the  prin- 
cipal beast  of  burden  employed. 

5.  Cities.  —  Mecca  and  Me- 
dina are  the  two  principal  cities 
in  Hedjaz. 

Mecca  was  the  birthplace  of  Mo- 
hammed, and  Medina  the  place  of  his 
death.  Mohammed,  the  great  religious 
teacher  of  the  Arabs,  lived  in  the  sixth 
century,  A.D.,  and  wrote  his  doctrines 
in  the  Koran,  the  sacred  book  of  his 
followers.  All  "  true  believers  "  are 
enjoined  to  visit  Mecca  at  least  once 
in  their  lives.  Caravans  of  pilgrims 
from  all  parts  of  Arabia,  from  eastern 
Asia,  and  from  northern  Africa,  re- 
sort each  year  to  this  holy  city  for  the 
purpose  of  combining  trade  with  re- 
ligion. 

Sana  is  the  chief  city  in  Ye- 
men.     Mocha,  formerly  a  con- 

lerable  port,  is  now  in  ruins, 
iiscat  is  the  capital  of  Oman, 
and  Riad  of  Nedjed. 


ASIATIC   TURKEY. —MALAY   ARCHIPELAGO. 


95 


ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

1.  Situation.  —  Asiatic  Turkey  comprises  the  western  part 
of  Asia,  and  includes  the  seat  of  many  ancient  nations,  among 
which  are  Phoenicia,  the  Holy  Land,  the  states  of  Asia  Minor, 
Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Chaldaea. 

2.  Divisions.  —  Asiatic  Turkey  is  divided  into  various  prov- 
inces ruled  by  pachas,  or  governors. 

3.  Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  differ  widely  in  race,  lan- 
guage, and  religion.  The  majority  are  Mohammedans,  prin- 
cipally Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  and  Arabs  in  the  provinces  to  the 
south.  The  Christians  are,  for  the  most  part,  Greeks  and 
Armenians. 

4.  Industries.  —  Though  the  soil  is  highly  productive,  agri- 
culture is  little  practiced,  except  near  large  towns,  the  country 
being  infested  with  bands  of  robbers.  The  manufactures  of 
silk,  cotton,  and  leather  are  of  considerable  importance ;  but, 
generally  speaking,  there  is  great  stagnation  of  industry  and 
enterprise,  and  civilization  is  at  a  low  ebb. 


5.  Commerce.  —  The  chief  exports  are  opium,^  tobacco, 
attar-of-roses,  figs,  dates,  silk,  and  leather. 

The  imports  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  chietiy  from  Great  Britain,  and 
include  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  hardware,  glass,  and  metals.  The 
means  of  internal  communication  are  very  defective :  there  are  few 
regular  roads,  and  travelers  have  to  unite  themselves  in  companies 
or  caravans  for  mutual  protection. 

6.  Cities.  —  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor,  is  the  largest  city  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  the  chief  emporium  of  the  Levant  (coun- 
tries bordering  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean). 
Damascus,  the  largest  city  in  Syria,  is  the  great  depot  of  the 
caravan  trade.  Beyrout,  the  port  of  Damascus,  is  the  most 
flourishing  of  the  Syrian  towns.  Bagdad,  on  the  Tigris,  is 
famed  for  its  bazaars.  Jerusalem,  called  by  the  modern  in- 
habitants El-Koods  ("the  Holy  "),  is  the  most  prominent  point 
of  interest  in  the  Holy  Land. 

Jerusalem,  which  is  situated  on  a  rocky  plateau,  contains  about  fifteen 
thousand^  inhabitants.  The  several  religious  sects  —  Christians, 
Turks,  and  Jews  —  occupy  different  quarters  of  the  city,  which  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  entered  by  four  gates. 


MALAY     ARCHIPELAGO. 


DESCRIPTION. 

1.  Situation.  — The  Malay  Archipelago,  or  Malaysia,  includes 
the  numerous  islands  and  island-groups  situated  between  south- 
eastern Asia  and  Australia.  They  are  entirely  within  the 
tropics. 

Among  the  vast  multitude  of  islands  in  Malaysia  the  largest  and  most 
important  are,  — 
Borneo,  270,000  square  miles.        Java,  45,000  square  miles. 
Sumatra,  150,000  square  miles.      Philippine  Islands,  100,000  square  miles. 
Celebes,  72,000  square  miles.         Moluccas,  25,000  square  miles. 

2.  Physical  Features.  —  These  islands  are  all  mountainous, 
abounding  in  active  and  extinct  volcanoes,  and  are  subject  to 
frequent  earthquakes.  Great  heat  and  moisture,  the  former 
tempered  by  the  sea-breezes,  are  the  characteristics  of  the 
climate,  and  consequently  the  vegetation  is  varied  and  lux- 
uriant. 

3.  Plants  and  Animals. — The  forest-trees  yield  a  variety 
of  valuable  woods,  such  as  ebony,  teak,  sandal-wood,  etc.,  and 
of  useful  gums,  of  which  India-rubber  and  gutta-percha  are  the 
most  important.  Among  food-plants  are  the  cocoa  and  sago 
palms,  and  the  banana,  arum,  yam,  and  mango.  Among  the 
wild  animals  are  the  elephant,  tiger,  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  orang- 
outang, monkeys,  and  birds  of  gorgeous  plumage. 

4.  Population.  —  The  population  of  the  Malay  Archipelago 
is  about  30,000,000.  The  natives  belong  to  the  Malay  race,  but 
present  many  varieties.  They  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  and 
are  divided  into  numerous  petty  states.  Many  of  the  native 
races  possess  written  languages  ;  but  their  literature  is  very 
inferior  to  that  of  either  the  Chinese  or  the  Hindoos. 

The  natives  are  strongly  addicted  to  maritime  pursuits,  and  are  in 
many  cases  inveterate  pirates,  though  a  great  deal  of  the  peaceful 
commerce  of  the  Archipelago  is  also  in  the  hands  of  the  Malay 
nations.     These  people  are  of  a  brown  color,  with  lank  hair ;  they 


wear  little  clothing,  live  chiefly  on  rice,  fruits,  and  fish,  and  dwell  in 
bamboo  houses,  perched  on  pillars  to  raise  them  above  the  water. 
All  classes  smoke  tobacco,  and  chew  the  betel-nut.  Their  boats  and 
canoes  are  to  the  Malays  what  the  camel  is  to  the  Arab,  or  the  horse 
to  the  wandering  Mongol;  and  the  necessities  of  their  situation  have 
made  them  fishermen,  navigators,  and  traders.  Their  warfare,  like 
their  ordinary  pursuits,  is  carried  on  upon  the  water ;  and  their  long 
prahus,  or  war-canoes,  filled  with  armed  warriors,  are  the  terror  of 
the  peaceful  frequenters  of  these  seas. 

5.  European  Possessions. — The  Philippine  Islands  belong 
to  Spain ;  but  most  of  the  Archipelago  belongs  to  the  Dutch. 
The  whole  of  the  Moluccas,  Java,  and  Sumbawa,  with  parts  of 
Sumatra,  Celebes,  Borneo,  and  Timor,  are  in  their  possession. 
They  constitute  what  are  called  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

Historical.  —  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  (1602),  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  was  organized  for  the  purpose  of  monopolizing  the  trade  of 
the  East  India  Islands.  This  company  soon  grew  rich  and  powerful  out  of 
their  enormous  profits.  The  Dutch  fitted  out  fleets  of  armed  merchantmen 
that  defied  the  Malay  pirates,  and  contended  successfully  with  the  navy  of 
Spain.  The  prosperity  of  Holland  reached  its  highest  point;  and  Amster- 
dam, Antwerp,  The  Hague,  and  other  ports,  were  thronged  with  the  ships  of 
all  nations.  The  Dutch  supplied  the  world  with  spices,  cloves,  nutmegs, 
camphor,  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  indigo,  cotton,  dyes,  drugs,  and  cabinet-woods. 
Other  European  nations  also  engaged  in  profitable  traffic  with  this  bountiful 
region  of  the  earth,  which  to  this  day  is  a  great  center  of  interest  in  the 
commerce  of  all  nations. 

6.  Exports.  —  Java  exports  great  quantities  of  coffee  and 
rice  ;  the  Moluccas  supply  the  world  with  nutmegs,  cloves,  and 
other  spices  ;  Sumatra  furnishes  India-rubber  and  gutta-percha ; 
and  the  Philippines  produce  sugar,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Dia- 
monds are  found  in  Borneo,  and  gold,  tin,  and  copper  are  widely 
distributed. 

7.  Cities.  —  Manila,  the  largest  city  in  the  Archipelago,  is 
the  capital  of  the  Spanish  possessions,  and  the  chief  emporium 
of  the  Philippines.  Batavia,  in  the  Island  of  Java,  is  the 
capital  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP   OF   AFRICA. 


97 


AFRICA. 


PHYSICAL  VIEW   OF  AFRICA. 

[Area,  11,514,000  square  miles.     Population,  206,000,000.] 

QUESTIONS    ON   THE   MAP. 

I.  PHYSICAL. 

What  geographical  circles  cross  Africa  ?  In  which  zone  is  the  greater 
part  ?  In  which  zone  is  the  northern  part?  The  southern  part  ?  What  two 
seas  north  and  east?  What  ocean  east?  West?  What  part  of  the  United 
States  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  northern  part  of  Africa?  (See  map  of 
the  United  States,  pp.  28,  29.)  What  grand  division  north  of  Africa?  East 
of  Africa  ?  In  what  latitude  is  Algiers  ?  In  what  latitude  is  Cape  Agulhas  ? 
How  much  farther  south  is  Cape  Horn?  (See  map  of  South  America, 
p.  62.)  When  it  is  noon  at  Washington,  what  time  is  it  at  Cairo?  When  it 
is  noon  at  London,  what  time  is  it  at  Cairo  ?  What  isthmus  connects  Africa 
with  Asia?  What  canal  crosses  this  isthmus?  What  waters  does  it 
connect  ?  What  places  at  its  termini  ?  What  strait  connects  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  What  gulf  in  the  western  part  ? 
What  channel  separates  Madagascar  from  the  mainland?  What  gulf  in  the 
north-eastern  part  ?    What  is  the  most  northerly  cape  of  Africa  ?     The  most 


westerly?  The  most  southerly?  What  famous 
cape  near  the  southern  extremity?  What  is  the 
most  easterly  cape  ?  Name  the  principal  mountain- 
ranges  that  border  the  African  coast.  What  plateau 
in  the  eastern  part?  What  two  peaks  near  the 
Equator?  What  extensive  desert  in  the  northern 
part  ?  Name  two  other  deserts.  What  two  large 
lakes  are  crossed  by  the  Equator  ?  Name  four 
lakes  south  of  the  Equator.  What  lake  in  Soudan  ? 
What  great  river  flows  from  the  equatorial  lakes 
into  the  Mediterranean?  What  river  drains  the 
southern  part  of  Central  Africa?  What  great  river 
drains  the  central  part?  What  great  river  drains 
Soudan  ?  What  parallel  crosses  the  region  of 
greatest  heat?  What  are  the  principal  vegetable 
products  of  the  Barbary  States  ?  Of  the  Nile 
valley?  Of  the  west  coast?  What  can  you  say 
of  plants  and  animals  in  Central  Africa?  What 
are  the  principal  animals  of  the  eastern  coast? 
In  what  parts  of  Africa  are  the  largest  wild  ani- 
mals found  ?  Where  is  the  lion  found  ?  The 
crocodile  ?  The  camel  ?  The  ostrich  ?  The 
gorilla?  In  what  regions  are  domestic  animals 
most  numerous  ?  Name  and  locate  the  minerals 
of  Africa.  Name  the  principal  plants,  animals, 
and  minerals  of  Madagascar.  What  are  the  prin- 
cipal ocean-currents  flowing  along  the  west  coast  ? 
The  east  coast.' 

II.  POLITICAL. 

Name  the  four  Barbary  States.  What  are  the 
capitals  of  Morocco?  What  is  the  capital  of 
Algeria  ?  Of  Tunis  ?  Of  Tripoli  ?  What  country 
occupies  the  Nile  valley?  What  are  its  principal 
divisions  ?  Which  city  is  the  capital  ?  What  two 
ports  north  of  Cairo?  What  country  east  of  Egypt? 
What  is  the  capital  ?  What  coast  country  east  of 
the  equatorial  lakes ?  What  is  its  capital?  What 
island  division  east  of  Mozambique  Channel  ?  Its 
capital  ?  What  British  possessions  in  the  southern 
part?  What  is  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony?  Name 
some  of  the  divisions  of  Upper  Guinea.  What 
vast  natural  division  south  of  the  Barbary  States  ? 
South  of  Sahara?     South  of  Soudan? 


III.  REVIEW   QUESTIONS. 

Capes.  —  Where  is  it  ?    Into  -what  water  does  it  project? 

Agulhas  ?     St.  Mary  ?     Bon  ?    Good  Hope  ?     Verde  ? 

Lakes.  —  Where  is  it?     What  is  its  outlet  ? 

Tchad  ?  Tanganyika  ?  Victoria  Nyanza  ?  Nyassa  ?  Albert  Ny- 
anza? 

Rivers.  —  Where  does  it  rise  f  In  what  direction,  and  into  what,  does 
it  flow  ? 

Orange?    Niger?    Nile?    Zambesi?    Congo  or  Livingstone  ? 

Divisions  Natural  or  Political.  —  Where  is  it  ? 

Morocco?  Liberia?  Sahara?  Egypt?  Nubia?  Cape  Colony?  Zan- 
guebar  ?  Soudan  ?  Abyssinia  ?  Algeria  ?  Egyptian  Soudan  ?  Natal  ? 
Madagascar  ? 

Cities.  —  In  what  part  of  the  country  ?    How  situated? 

Cape  Town  ?  Fez  ?  Cairo  ?  Gondar  ?  Algiers  ?  Alexandria  ?  Tim- 
buctoo  ?  Tananarivo  ?  Ujiji  ?  Port  Said  ?  Suez  ?  Freetown  ?  Tripoli  ? 
Khartoom  ? 


li^if 


^^r. 


5  ■"vf 


.*!^ 


i'Ml. 


DESCRIPTION. 


Sv  ;^    ^ 


^^N 


X 


SIZE  AND    SITUATION. 

I.  Africa  ranks  next  to  Asia  in  size.     It  occupies  the  entire  width 
of    the  Torrid  Zone,  its  northern    section  extending   into   the    North 
Temperate,  and  its  southern  section  into  the  South  Temperate  Zone. 
Africa,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  ocean,  except  where  it  is  united  to  Asia  by 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  is  naturally  a  great  southern  peninsula  of  the  Eastern 
Continent ;  but,  by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  it  has  been  ren- 
dered an  island<ontinent. 

II.    DIVISIONS. 
2.  Africa  is  naturally  divided  into  four  parts,  —  Northern  Africa,  the  Sahara, 
Soudan  and  Central  Africa,'  and  Southern  Africa. 

3-  Northern  Africa  extends  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  border  of  the  Sahara, 
,Xor  Great  Desert.     In  the  northern  part  of  this  division  is  the  Atlas  range. 

4-  Sahara.  —  The  Sahara,  the  most  extensive  desert  on  the  globe,  commences  to 
the  southward  of  the  Atlas  system,  and  extends  to  the  border  of    Soudan,  with  a 

breadth,  in  some  parts,  of   more  than  a  thousand  miles.     It  forms   a   plateau   of 
moderate  elevation. 
5.  Soudan  and  Central  Africa  extend  from  the  southern  border  of  the  Sahara  to 
the  Kalahari  Desert.     The  whole  region  is  a  low  plateau,  bordered  to  the  west- 
ward by  a  rim  of  coast  mountains,  and  to  the  eastward  by  the  Plateau  of 
Abyssinia  and  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 

The  Plateau  of  Abyssinia  is  the  most  elevated  in  Africa;  but  the  Mountains  of  the    -"// 
Moon  contain  the  loftiest  summits.      The   peaks   of  Kenia  and  Kilimanjaro 
(20,000  feet  high),  though  under  the  equator,  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

6.  Southern  Africa.  —  Southern   Africa   includes   the   fertile   section 
south  of  Kalahari  Desert. 

III.    RIVERS    AND    LAKES. 
Rivers.  —  The  African  rivers  are  few  in  number,  though  some 
of  them  are  noted  for  their  great  length.     The 
most  important  are  the  Nile,  Niger,  Congo 
or  Livingstone,  and  Zambesi. 


^ 


VEGETATION   OF  AFRICA. 


VEGETATION   AND   ANIMALS   OF   AFRICA:    BARBARY   STATES. 


,,-99 


Lakes.  —  In  the  equatorial  region 
of  Africa  is  a  series  of  lakes  rival- 
ing in  size  the  Great  Lakes  of  North 
America.  The  largest  of  these  are 
lakes  Albert  Nyanza,  Victoria  Nyanza, 
and  Tanganyika :  they  have  all  become 
known  within  late  years,  and  have  only 
recently  been  explored. 

IV.    VEGETATION,  ANIMALS,  ETC. 

g.  Vegetation.  —  Tropical  Africa  has 
abundant  rains  and  a  lu.xuriant  vegeta- 
tion. The  baobab,  a  remarkable  tree 
with  a  trunk  often  thirty  feet  in  diame- 
ter, is  found  on  the  higher  lands  of 
Central  Africa ;  the  alluvial  plains  on 
the  western  coast  are  covered  with  thick- 
ets of  mangroves  and  other  trees  ;  and 
on  the  borders  of  the  equatorial  region 
are  groves  of  mimosas  and  acacia,  from 
the  latter  of  which  trees  gum-arabic  is 
obtained.  Palms  are  numerous  :  the  oil- 
palm  is  found  only  on  the  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea ;  while  south  of  the  Atlas 
region,  and  in  the  oases,  is  found  the 
date-palm,  which  furnishes  a  large  part 
of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants.  Other 
characteristic  plants  are  the  papyrus,  or 
paper-plant,  the  lotus,  and  the  senna- 
plant. 

lo.  Animals.  —  Africa  is  the  land  of 
wild  beasts.  The  elephant,  hippopota- 
mus, and  rhinoceros ;  the  zebra,  elk, 
camel,  and  giraffe ;  springboks,  ante- 
lopes, and  buffaloes  ;  the  gorilla,  chim- 
panzee, mandril,  and  other  baboons  and 
monkeys ;  the  lion,  panther,  and  leopard, 
—  these  are  only  the  more  prominent  of 
the  quadrupeds  which  roam  through  the 
forests,  and  over  the  plains  of  Africa 


ANIMALS   OF  AFRICA. 


The  ostrich  inhabits  the  sandy  deserts, 
and  parrots  and  paroquets,  with  other 
birds  of  beautiful  plumage,  are  innumer- 
able. Lizards  and  venomous  serpents 
of  almost  every  species  abound  in  all 
parts,  and  the  Nile  is  noted  for  croco- 
diles. 

11.  Population.  —  The  population  of 
Africa  is  estimated  at  two  hundred 
millions.  Of  these  the  greater  part 
are  negroes,  divided  into  numerous 
tribes. 

12.  Divisions.  — The  principal  politi- 
cal divisions  of  Africa  are  the  Barbary 
States,  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  the  Sahara, 
Central  Africa,  Soudan,  and  the  Euro- 
pean Colonies. 

BARBARY   STATES. 

1.  Divisions. — The  Barbairy  States 
are  Morocco,  an  independent  kingdom 
governed  by  a  Sultan  ;  Algeria,  a  French 
colony  ;  together  with  Tunis  and  Tripoli, 
which  are  dependencies  of  the  Turkish 
Empire. 

2.  Commerce.  —  The  principal  ex- 
ports of  the  Barbary  States  are  wool, 
goat-skins  and  leather,  gum,  wax,  olive- 
oil,  and  dates.  Besides  this  trade, 
considerable  commercial  intercourse  is 
carried  on  with  the  natives  of  Central 
Africa  by  means  of  caravans  which 
cross  the  Sahara. 

3.  Cities.  —  The  leading  cities  are 
Morocco  and  Fez,  the  capital  cities  of 
Morocco ;  Algiers,  the  capital  of  Al- 
geria; and  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  respec- 
tively the  leading  cities  of  the  states  of 
the  same  names. 


/■ 


lot) 


EGYPT   AND   ABYSSINIA.  — THE   SAHARA. 


EGYPT  AND  ABYSSINIA. 


By  the  Suez  Canal  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  are  connected  via 
the  Red  Sea,  thus  saving  the  extended  voyage  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  total  length  of  the  Canal  from  Port  Said,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  to  Suez,  its  terminus  on  the  Red  Sea,  is  about  one 
hundred  miles. 

6.  Population,  etc. — The  population  is  a  great  mixture  of 
races,  —  Copts,  Arabs,  Turks,  Greeks,  etc.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  Mohammedanism. 

7.  Cities.  —  Cairo,  the  capital,  is  the  chief  seat  of  trade  and 
manufactures.     Alexandria  is  the  chief  seaport. 

8.  Abyssinia.  —  Abyssinia  is  an  elevated  plateau,  ridged  by 
rugged  mountains,  between  which  are  fertile  valleys  covered 
with  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  countrj'  is  divided  between 
several  petty  independent  states,  inhabited  by  warlike  and 
semi-barbarous  tribes.  The  people,  numbering  about  four 
millions,  profess  a  sort  of  Christianity,  but  are  immoral  and 
degraded.     The  commerce  is  unimportant. 

Gondar  is  the  largest  city.  Massuah,  on  the  Red  Sea,  the 
chief  seaport,  belongs  to  Egypt. 


THE  SAHARA. 


II. 


ENE    IN    CAIRO. 

1.  Divisions.  —  Egypt  includes  Egypt  Proper,  Nubia,  and 
Egyptian  Soudan.  It  occupies  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  from 
the  equatorial  lakes  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

2.  The  Nile.  —  The  River  Nile  is  the  most  striking  physical 
feature  in  Egypt :  without  this  beneficent  stream,  the  whole 
country  would  be  a  hot  and  arid  desert.  Nearly  all  the  produc- 
tive and  habitable  parts  are  comprised  in  its  valley  and  delta. 

I.  The  Nile  valley  is,  owing  to  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile,  one  of 
the  most  fertile  regions  on  the  globe.  These  inundations  begin  about 
the  middle  of  June,  attain  their  greatest  height  in  September,  and 
subside  about  the  end  of  October.  Before  its  subsidence,  the  muddy 
river-water  deposits  a  fertilizing  sediment,  half  an  inch  thick,  over  all 
the  land,  and  thus  annually  renews  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 
Egypt  is  a  country  of  vast  antiquity,  and  the  Egyptians  are  the  oldest 
nation  of  which  we  have  a  recorded  history.  They  were  a  highly 
civilized  people  at  the  time  of  Abraham,  more  than  two  thousand 
years  before  Christ.  The  whole  course  of  the  Nile  is  dotted  with 
remains  of  ancient  monuments  and  works  of  art,  such  as  pjTamids, 
temples,  obelisks,  palaces,  tombs,  etc.  The  interiors  of  the  tombs 
are  frescoed  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  and  all  the  monuments 
are  covered  with  picture-writing  called  hieroglyphics. 

3.  Government.  —  Egypt  forms  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire, and  is  ruled  by  a  viceroy  called  the  Khedive. 

4.  Occupation.  —  The  principal  occupation  is  agriculture. 
Wheat,  barley,  maize,  rice,  and  cotton  form  the  chief  crops  ;  to- 
bacco, sugar,  and  indigo  are  produced  to  a  considerable  extent. 

5.  Commerce.  —  Grain  and  cotton  are  largely  exported ; 
and,  in  addition  to  these  products  of  the  country,  great  quanti- 
ties of  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  ostrich-feathers,  are  brought  by 
caravan  from  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  Suez  ship-canal  is 
of  immense  commercial  importance. 


CROSSING  THE  GREAT  DESERT. 


I.  Description.  — 
The  Sahara  is  a 
parched,  sandy,  and 
desolate  waste,  occu- 
one-fourth  of 
the  surface  of  Africa, 
or  an  area  equal  to 
about  two-thirds  that 
of  Europe.  The  only  habitable  parts  are  the  oases :  these  are 
fertile  spots  covered  with  date-palms,  which  offer  their  grateful 
shade,  refreshing  water,  and  sweet  fruit,  to  the  weary  caravans. 
2.  The  inhabitants  probably  do  not  number  over  100,000 
souls.  They  comprise  several  tribes, — Moors,  Tuaregs,  and 
Tiboos,  —  wanderers  who  feed  their  flocks  and  herds  on  the 
scanty  herbage  as  they  pass  from  oasis  to  oasis,  and  who  subsist 
on  the  milk  of  their  camels,  on  dates  from  the  oases,  and  on 
what  they  can  plunder  from  the  caravans. 

Numerous  caravans,  sometimes  consisting  of  thousands  of  camels, 
cross  the  desert,  by  various  routes,  from  the  Barbary  States  to 
Central  Africa,  occupying  from  thirty  to  ninety  days  in  the  journey. 
It  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  man  to  traverse  the  Sahara 
without  the  aid  of  the  camel,  which  is  the  only  animal  that  can 
eat  the  coarse  herbage  growing  in  the  desert,  and  the  only  animal, 
that,  without  water,  can  pass  long  periods  of  time  on  the  burning 
sands. 


CENTRAL   AFRICA. 


Lo"! 


-li^-ir-rrTi 


CENTRAL   AFRICA. 

I.  Situation.  —  Central  Africa  comprises  the  vast  region 
represented  in  tlie  accompanying  map.  It  is  only  during  recent 
years  that  this  portion  of  the 
dark  continent  has  become 
known  to  the  civilized  world. 

Explorations.  —  The  series  of  bold 
explorations  which  has  resulted  in 
largely  increasing  our  knowledge  of 
the  geography  of  interior  Africa  be- 
gan about  thirty  years  ago.  In  1852 
the  celebrated  Dr.  David  Livingstone 
traversed  South  Africa,  and,  after  a 
four-years'  journey  of  eleven  thousand 
miles,  descended  the  Zambesi  River  to 
its  mouth.  In  1856  Burton  and  Speke 
landed  at  Zanzibar,  and  two  years 
later,  after  a  journey  of  a  thousand 
miles,  discovered  Lake  Tanganyika. 
Speke  immediately  pushed  his  explora- 
tions to  the  northward,  and  discovered 
the  magnificent  lake  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  Victoria  Nyanza.  (N'yanza, 
meaning  "  the  lake,"  is  the  native 
name  of  this  body  of  water.)  Victoria 
Lake  was  in  1861  revisited  and  further 
explored  by  Speke,  accompanied  by 
Capt.  Grant.     Three  years  later,  Sir 


CAPITAL  OF  MTESI, 


Samuel  Baker  discovered  the  great  lake  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Albert 
Nyanza,  traced  its  connection  with  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  beheld,  emerg- 
ing from  the  former,  the  majestic  Nile,  whose  sources  had  been  vainly 
sought  for  two  thousand  years      From  1865  to  1871  Dr.  Livingstone  made 

extensive  surveys  of  the  region  of  the 
great  lakes,  exploring  lakes  Bangweolo, 
Nyassa,  and  Tanganyika.  For  two 
years  subsequent  to  May,  1869,  at  which 
time  Dr.  Livingstone  was  at  Ujiji,  no 
tidings  were  received  from  him,  and  he 
was  supposed  to  be  dead;  but  in  1871 
Stanley  found  him,  alive  and  well,  at 
the  last-named  place.  Soon  afterward, 
Livingstone  undertook  another  series 
of  explorations  towards  the  west,  but 
died  in  the  midst  of  these  in  1873. 
In  1874  Lieut.  Cameron,  a  man  distin- 
guished for  his  scientific  attainments, 
and  boldness  as  an  explorer,  starting 
from  Nyangwe,  the  most  westerly  point 
reached  by  Dr.  Livingstone,  performed 
the  remarkable  exploit  of  forcing  his 
way  to  the  Atlantic,  which  he  reached 
at  Benguela  in  the  following  year.  The 
latest  chapter  in  the  long  history  of 
African  discovery  is  that  which  re- 
counts the  manner  ia  which  Stanley, 
starting  from  the  head  waters  of  the 
Livingstone  River,  sailed  down  its 
entire  course  to  the  ."lea. 

KINQ  OF  UOANDA. 


W2; 


POLITICAL   AFRICA:    OCEANICA. 


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104 


OCEANICA. 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS    OF    OCEANICA. 


DESCRIPTION. 


1.  Divisions.  —  Oceanica  includes  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
Australasia,  Melanesia,  and  Polynesia. 

The  Malay  Archipelago  has  been  described  under  Asia. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

2.  Divisions.  —  Australasia  comprises  the  continental  island 
of  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and,  according  to  some 
geographers,  also  includes  the  group  of  islands  called  Melanesia, 
extending  from  New  Guinea  to  New  Caledonia. 

Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand  are  British  colonies. 

3.  Australia.  —  Australia,  the  greatest  of  islands,  is  more 
than  two-thirds  as  large  as  the  United  States.  The  interior, 
which  is  mostly  unexplored  territory,  is  a  low  plateau,  a  con- 
siderable part  of  it  desert.  The  rivers  are  few,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  Murray  and  its  tributaries. 


4.  Climate.  — The  northern  half  is  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  and 
has  a  tropical  climate :  the  southern  section  has  the  tempera- 
ture of  Southern  Europe.  Long  periods  of  drought  occur, 
while  at  certain  seasons  the  rains  fall  with  great  violence. 

As  Australia  is  situated  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  seasons  are 
the  opposite  of  ours :  thus  it  is  hottest  at  Christmas,  and  coldest  in 
our  midsummer.  The  Australian  farmer  sows  his  seed  when  we  are 
gathering  our  harvests,  and  the  reverse. 

5.  Vegetation.  —  The  forest  vegetation  is  peculiar,  the  native 
trees  being  evergreens,  and  some  shedding  their  bark  instead 
of  their  leaves.  Acacias,  gum-trees  (the  eucalypti),  and  gigan- 
tic tree-ferns,  are  the  chief  forest-trees. 

6.  Animals.  —  The  wild  animals  are  quite  as  peculiar  as  the 
vegetation.  The  largest  is  the  kangaroo,  which  is  a  pouched 
animal.  A  very  remarkable  animal  is  the  ornithorhynchus  :  it 
is  a  water  animal,  shaped  like  a  beaver,  has  web  feet,  and  a  bill 
like  that  of  a  duck. 


AUSTRALASIA.  —  POLYNESIA. 


»05 


SCENE  IN  POLYNESIA. 


7.  Political  Divisions. — Australia  is  divided  into  seven 
provinces  or  colonies,  namely :  i.  Victoria ;  2.  New  South 
Wales ;  3.  Queensland ;  4.  Soutli  Australia ;  5.  Alexandra 
Land ;   6.  North  Australia ;   7.  West  Australia. 

8.  The  government  in  each  colony  consists  of  a  Governor 
appointed  in  England,  a  Legislative  Council,  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly  elected  by  the  people. 

9.  Natural  Wealth.  —  Its  rich  mines  of  gold,  copper,  iron, 
and  coal,  and  its  great  e.xtent  of  agricultural  and  grazing  lands, 
constitute  the  natural  wealth  of  Australia. 

10.  Occupations.  —  The  leading  industries  are  mining,  agri- 
culture, and  stock-raising.  In  the  production  of  gold  and  wool 
it  ranks  among  the  leading  countries  of  the  world. 

1 1.  Commerce.  — Australia  being  a  colony  of  Great  Britain, 
its  trade  is  mostly  carried  on  with  the  mother-country.  It 
exports  wool,  gold,  copper,  hides,  tallow,  and  preserved  meats, 
and  receives  in  exchange  the  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  iron 
and  hard  ware  of  England. 

12.  Cities.  —  Melbourne,  the  capital  of  Victoria,  is  the  great 
commercial  and  monetary  center  of  Australia.  Sydney,  in  New 
South  Wales,  is  the  second  city  in  importance.  Adelaide,  the 
chief  city  of  South  Australia,  is  largely  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing and  trade.  Brisbane  is  the  chief  city  of  Queensland. 
Perth  is  the  chief  city  of  West  Australia. 

13.  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand. — Tasmania  and  New 
Zealand  are  separate  British  colonies.  Agriculture  and  sheep- 
raising  are  carried  on  in  both  colonies  :  in  addition,  the  whale- 
fishery  is  followed  in  Tasmania,  and  gold-mining  in  New  Zealand. 
HobartTown  is  the  capital  and  chief  city  of  Tasmania;  Welling- 
ton, of  New  Zealand. 

MELANESIA. 

New  Guinea,  the  largest  island  of  Melanesia,  ranks  next  to 
Australia  as  the  largest  island  on  the  globe.  The  Melanesian 
islands  are  in  general  highly  productive,  yielding  tropical  food- 
plants  and  valuable  timber-trees.  The  native  inhabitants  belong 
to  the  Papuan  negro  race. 

The  Dutch   claim  authority  over  the  western  half  of   New  Guinea. 
The  French  have  a  penal  settlement  in  New  Caledonia. 

POLYNESIA. 

I.  Polynesia,  meaning  "  many  islands,"  is  the  name  given  to 
the  small  islands  and  groups  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  east  of  Aus- 
tralasia and  Malaysia,  and  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 


2.  Products.  — These  islands  combine  the  three  things  requi- 
site for  luxuriant  vegetation  ;  namely,  heat,  moisture,  and  a  fer- 
tile soil.  The  principal  indigenous  food-plants  are  the  bread- 
fruit, yam,  sweet-potato,  taro-root,  arrow-root,  banana,  plantain, 
and  cocoanut.  Coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  rice,  and,  in  fact,  most  of 
the  fruits  and  grains  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  zones  of 
Asia,  have  been  introduced  into  these  islands. 

3.  Native  Races.  —  The  South-Sea  Islanders  are  seafaring 
people,  and  display  great  skill  and  boldness  in  the  management 
of  their  canoes.  Their  natural  intelligence  shows  them  to  be 
capable  of  a  high  degree  of  civilization ;  but  they  have  been 
rapidly  dying  out  since  they  came  in  contact  with  the  white 
race.  The  whole  population  of  all  the  Polynesian  Islands  does 
not  exceed  half  a  million. 

4.  Sandwich  Islands.  —  The  Sandwich  Islands,  the  most 
important  group,  are  situated  just  a  little  south  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  between  150°  and  160°  west  longitude.  The  largest 
island  is  Hawaii,  which  is  about  the  size  of  Connecticut. 
These  islands  form  an  independent  nation  governed  by  a  king 
or  queen.  The  entire  population  of  the  kingdom  does  not 
exceed  60,000.  Most  of  the  Sandwich-Islanders  profess  Chris- 
tianity, and  are  partly  civilized.  The  principal  exports  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands  are  sugar,  molasses,  rice,  cocoanut-oil,  cocoa- 
nuts,  and  oranges.  Honolulu,  the  capital  and  principal  sea- 
port, is  a  resort  for  the  whaling-vessels  of  the  North  Pacific. 

Hawaii  is  noted  for  its  great  volcanic  peak,  Mauna  Loa,  13,000  feet 
high.  Kilauea,  a  lower  lateral  crater  of  Mauna  Loa  halfway  up  the 
mountain-side,  is  nine  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  sometimes  filled 
with  a  fiery  lake  of  red-hot  lava. 

5.  The  Society  Islands  contain  a  population  of  about  20,000, 
the  majority  of  whom  have  been  converted  to  Christianity. 
The  Island  of  Tahiti  is  under  French  rule.  The  various 
foreigners  settled  in  these  islands  carry  on  some  commerce, 
consisting  chiefly  in  the  export  of  pearl-shells,  sugar,  cocoanut- 
oil,  and  arrow-root. 

6.  The  Feejee  Group  comprises  over  three  hundred  islands, 
of  which  about  one-half  are  inhabited.  These  islands  are  under 
British  rule.  The  number  of  islanders  is  estimated  at  200,000. 
The  Feejeeans  are  among  the  most  warlike  and  most  skillful 
of  the  Polynesians.  All  of  them  were  formerly  cannibals ; 
but  many  have  now  given  up  the  practice  of  eating  human 
flesh. 


io6 


THE   POLAR   REGIONS. 


THE    POLAR    REGIONS. 


1.  The  Polar  Regions  are  those  parts  of  the  earth's  surface 
north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and  south  of  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
They  consist  of  the  Arctic  region  and  the  Antarctic  region. 

I.    ARCTIC    REGION. 

2.  Early  Discoveries. —  It  is  quite  certain,  that,  as  early  as 
the  tenth  century  A.D.,  settlements  were  made  by  the  Norse- 
men in  high  latitudes  on  the  coast  of  Greenland.  But  our 
knovvledsre  of  what  was    


>    O 


s^*  vr^s-  >■    7^.  .^ 


!/r'\<^\ 


~-J=iCr 


"v«,r 


MAP  OF  THE  ARCTIC  REGION. 


Explorations. —  In  1498  Sebastian  Cabot  (who,  with  his  father,  had  in 
the  preceding  year  discovered  the  mainland  of  North  America)  undertook 
a  voyage  expressly  to  find  "  that  hidden  secret  of  nature,"  the  direct  passage 
to  Asia.  He  proceeded  northward  from  Labrador,  about  half-way  up  Davis 
Strait,  till  icebergs  compelled  him  to  change  his  course,  and  give  up  the 
attempt. 

In  1576  Frobisher  made  three  voj-ages  to  the  north-west,  explorintr,  among 
other  waters,  the  channel  now  known  as  Frobisher  Strait.  In  15S5-7  Davis 
explored  portions  of  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  the  strait  which  bears  his 

name.  In  1610  Hudson 
sailed  up  the  strait  named 
after  him,  into  Hudson 
Bay;  but  his  crew  muti- 
nied, and  set  him  adrift 
to  perish.  In  161 6  Baffin 
explored  the  bay  bearing 
lis  name,  and  entered  the 
mouth  of  Lancaster  Sound. 
In  1789  Mackenzie,  in  a 
land  expedition,  discovered 
and  traced  to  its  mouth 
the  river  called  after  him. 
In  1 819  Parry  traversed 
Barrow  Strait,  and  pene- 
trated as  far  north  as  the 
Parry  Islands. 

In  May,  1845,  the  ill- 
fated  expedition  of  Sir 
John  Franklin  set  sail  in 
search  of  the  North-west 
passage,  in  the  ships  Ere- 
bus and  Terror.  These 
vessels  were  last  seen  in 
July  of  that  year,  by  a 
whaling-ship,aboutthe  mid; 
die  of  Baffin  Bay;  Several 
years  having  elapsed  with 
no  tidings  of  this  expedi- 
tion, numerous  parties  were 
despatched  during  the  next 
ten  years  in  search  of.  Sir 
John  Franklin  and  his  asso- 
ciates. Among  these  expe- 
ditions may  be  mentioned 
those  of  Kane,  De  Haven, 
Ross,  Belcher,  Englefield, 
McClintock,  and  McCliire ; 
the  latter  officer,  in  cgm- 
mand  of  the  ship  Investi- 
gator, beingthe  first  ex- 
plorer who  traversed  the 
entire  region  from  Behring 
Strait  to  Baffin  Bay.  (See 
map.)  In  1855  McClintock 
discovered  proofs  that  all  of  'Sir  John  Franklin's  party  had  perished  from 
hunger  and  exposure,  and  documents  showing  that  Sir  John  was  the  first 
discoverer  of  the  North-west  passage. 

4.  North-east  Passage.  —  Very  soon  after  the  first  efforts  to 
find  a  North-west  passage  were  begun,  a  series  of  expeditions 


accomplished  by  these 
voyagers  is  vague,  and 
our  interest  in  Arctic 
exploration  begins  with 
the  series  of  expedi- 
tions for  the  discov- 
ery of  a  "  North-west 
passage,"  undertaken 
soon  after  the  discov- 
ery of  America  by 
Columbus. 

3.  North-west  Pas- 
sage.—  The  object  of 
those  who  undertook 
the  search  for  a  North- 
west passage  was  the 
discovery  of  a  route 
on  which,  sailing  west- 
ward around  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the 
American  continent, 
they  might  reach  the 
East  Indies.  It  was 
with  the  view  of  find- 
ing a  westward  way 
to  Cathay  (China)  that 
Columbus  undertook 
his  first  voyage  of  dis- 
covery. When,  how- 
ever, it  was  found  that 
a  New  World  barred 
access  to  the  Orient, 
daring  navigators  be- 
gan to  try  if  they  could 
not  open  a  pathway 
by  the  circumnaviga- 
tion of  North  America. 

The  first  of  these  attempts  was  made  by  Cabot  in  1498^  and 
this  was  followed  during  the  next  three  hundred  and  fifty  years 
by  a  long  series  of  baflfled  efforts,  till  at  last,  in  1854,  Capt. 
McClure  established  the  fact  of  a  continuous  passage  by  water 
from  Baffin  Bay  to  Behring  Strait.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs will  be  found  brief  notes  of  a  few  of  the  more  important  i  having  in  view  the  opening  of  an  ocean  route  to  the  East  Indies  ^ 
in  a  long  series  of  heroic  endeavors  that  too  often  received  only  by  sailing  airound  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  was 
the  martyr's  reward, — death.  I  undertaken  by  various  European  nations. 


THE   POLAR   REGIONS. 


107 


Details. —  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  expeditions  of  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  (1553), 
who  penetrated  to  Nova  Zembla,  but  was 
driven  back  by  ice,  and  perished  with  his 
crew;  of  Darentz  (1594-6),  a  Dutch  explorer, 
who  died  near  a  headland  of  Alaska;  of  Henry 
Hudson  (1608-9),  ^^'1°  vainly  attempted  the 
North-east  passage;  and  of  Behring  (1741), 
who  set  sail  from  a  harbor  in  Kamtchatka, 
but  perished  during  the  voyage. 

5.  Its  Discovery.  —  The  practica- 
bility of  a  north-east  passage  from 
western  Emope  to  eastern  Asia  was 
demonstrated  in  1878-9  by  the  Swedish 
explorer,  Professor  Nordenskjold. 

Details.  —  Professor  Nordenskjold  set  sail 
from  Gottenburg,  Sweden,  in  July,  1878,  and, 
after  rounding  North  Cape,  held  his  course 
eastward  to  W.  long.  177°.  Here  his  vessels 
wintered  in  the  pack-ice  until  midsummer  of 
1879,  when  they  were  released.  Resuming  the 
voyage,  he  sailed  through  Behring  Strait  into 


In  i860  Dr.  Hayes,  who  had  accompanied  Kane, 
organized  an  expedition  under  his  own  command. 
The  vessel  was  nipped  in  the  ice  about  lat.  78° ; 
but  from  there  various  journeys  were  made  north- 
ward by  way  of  Grinnell  Land.  Hayes,  with  one 
companion,  reached  lat.  81°  35',  the  most  northerly 
land  reached  up  to  that  time.  Further  progress 
was  impossible  on  account  of  rotten  ice. 

In  1 87 1  Capt.  Hall,  in  the  "Polaris,"  pushed 
northward  up  the  western  shore  of  Smith  Sound, 
reaching  82°  16'  in  Robeson  Channel,  where  the 
vessel  was  beset  with  ice.  Hall  started  with  a 
traveling  party;  but  little  was  accomplished,  and 
he  died  on  his  return  from  the  sledging  expedi- 
tion. 

In  1875  Capt.  Nares,  in  the  vessels  "Alert" 
and  "Discovery,"  left  England  commissioned  to 
attain  the  highest  possible  northern  latitude.  Pass- 
ing through  Smith  Sound  and  Kennedy  and  Robe- 
son channels,  they  reached  a  broad  ice-covered  sea, 
where  the  expedition  wintered  in  lat.  82°  27'.  The 
men  were  in  total  or  partial  darkness  for  a  hun- 
dred and  forty-two  days.  Numerous  well-equipped 
exploring  parties  were  sent  out,  and  one  of  these, 


the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  reached  Yokohama  in 
September,  1879. 

6.  Polar  Expeditions.  —  Among  the 
aims  of  Arctic  exploration  that  of 
reaching  the  North  Pole  has  long  been 
a  leading  one  ;  but  it  is  only  in  recent 
times  that  well-equipped  expeditions 
having  that  object  in  view  have  been 
sent  out.  The  principal  of  these  are 
the  American  expeditions  under  Kane, 
Hayes,  and  Hall,  and  the  English  ex- 
pedition under  Capt.  Nares. 

Details.  —  In  1853  Dr.  Kane,  who  had  formed 
the  opinion  that  around  the  North  Pole  was  a 
.great  open  sea,  headed  an  expedition  to  verify 
his  theory.  The  expedition  wintered  in  lat. 
78°  37'.  During  the  following  spring  various 
sledging  tours  to  the  north  were  made.  On 
one  of  these  Kennedy  Channel  was  discovered, 
and  the  party  penetrated  as  far  as  Cape  Con- 
stitution (in  Washington  Land)  in  lat.  81°  27'. 
The  open  channel  abounded  with  animal  life, 
such  as  bears,  birds,  and  seals. 


ANIMALS  OF  THE  ARCTIC   REOION. 


under  Commander  Markham,  reached  the  latitude 
of  €3°  20'  30",  the  most  northerly  point  thus  far 
attained. 

II.    ANTARCTIC   REGION. 

7.  Extent.  —  Very  little  is  known  of  the 
Antarctic  region.  The  land  surface  is 
small,  and  is  loosely  though  commonly 
spoken  of  as  the  Antarctic  Continent. 

Details.  —  Various  exploring  expeditions,  Ameri- 
can and  foreign,  have  been  sent  out  for  purposes 
of  Antarctic  discovery,  most  of  them  in  the  first 
half  of  the  present  century.  It  is  now  regarded 
as  extremely  doubtful  if  there  exists  in  these  re- 
gions any  such  extent  of  land-surface  as  would 
deserve  to  be  called  a  continent.  In  1841  an 
English  expedition  under  Capt.  Ross  explored  the 
steep  and  rocky  coast  known  as  Victoria  Land, 
discovering  an  active  volcano,  which  he  named 
Mount  Erebus.  No  important  discoveries  have 
been  made  in  Antarctic  seas  since  the  American  ex- 
pedition under  Wilkes  in  1842.  So  far  as  is  known, 
the  Antarctic  Continent,  so  called,  is  devoid  of 
human  population. 


LoDgitadd    East  130  from    Greenwich.  ISO  I.ongitade     West  150  from    Greenwich.  130 


Eut    ISO      West  163  Longitade  ISS  from     Washington.  103 


Longitnde  43  from     Washington.  IS        West        0  East  13 


QUESTIONS   ON  THE  MAP. 

North  America.  —  What  eight  Atlantic  ports  of 
North  America  can  you  name?  What  five  Gulf 
ports  ?  What  three  ports  in  the  West  Indies  ? 
What  two  ports  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama?  Name  four  seaports  on  the  Pacific 
coast  of  North  America.  What  two  shipping  points 
on  the  St  Lawrence  ?  Name  three  commercial  cen- 
ters in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  What  are  the  princi- 
pal steamer  routes  from  the  Atlantic  ports  of  North 
America?  From  the  Gulf  ports?  From  the  Pacific 
Dorts?    What  is  the  shortest  steamer  route  between 


North  America  and  Europe  ?  The  longest  ?  What 
is  the  length  of  the  sailing  route  from  New  York 
to  Cape  Town  ?  What  is  the  length  of  the  steamer 
route  from  New  York  to  Havana  ?  From  New 
York  to  Aspinwall  ?  By  how  many  submarine 
cables  has  North  America  communication  with  Eu- 
rope? What  steamer  line  from  New  Orleans  to 
Eurojje  ?  How  are  the  West  Indies  connected  with 
the  telegraphic  system  of  the  United  States?  By 
what  two  steamer  routes  does  San  Francisco  com- 
municate with  Eastern  Asia  ?  A  steamer  from  New 
York  lands  merchandise  at  Aspinwall:  how  djes 
this  merchandise  reach  San  Francisco  ?    B'   what 


railroad  route  or  routes  does  tea  brought  by  the 
Pacific  mail-steamers  to  San  Francisco  reach  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  ? 

South  America.  —  What  two  South  American 
ports  are  on  the  Caribbean  Sea?  Name  seven 
Atlantic  ports  of  South  America.  Five  Pacific  ports 
of  South  America.  What  steamer  connections  has 
South  America  with  the  United  States?  With  Eu- 
rope ?  From  what  South  American  ports  do  sailing- 
vessels  make  the  voyage  to  Europe?  What  are 
the  termini  of  the  submarine  cable  between  South 
America  and  Europe  ?  What  telegraphic  connection 
between  Havana  and  Valparaiso  ? 


Ix)ngitade    "West  80  from    Greenwich. 


Longftiida    £ast  XO  from    Greenwich.  CO 


"I    .'    Fishery 


longitude    from  47  Washington. 


COMMERCIAL  CHART  OF  THE  WORLD, 


SHOWING  THE  PRINCIPAL  TRADE  ROUTES,  SUBMARINE  CABLES,  ETC. 

By  Steamer,  By  Sail. 


EXPLANATION  OF  ROUTES 

By  Railroad  By  Caravan ,   SuTjmarine  Cables - 

Telegraph  Lines :.■ 

The  Figures  on  the  different  Sautes  indicate  {heir  length  in  Miles. 


Longitude    IVest         ISS 
from    Washington- 


Europe. —  What  is  the  most  northern  seaport  of 
urope  ?  What  are  the  principal  continental  Eu- 
ipean  seaports  on  the  Atlantic  or  its  arms  ?  Name 
:ven  seaports  of  the  British  Isles.  What  are  the 
lief  seaports  of  the  Mediterranean  ?  Of  the  Black 
2a  ?  What  are  the  principal  steamer  routes  from 
urope  to  North  America?  To  the  West  Indies? 
o  South  America?  How  many  miles  does  a 
liling-vessel  make  in  the  voyage  from  Liverpool 
'  San  Francisco?  What  class  of  vessels  circum- 
ivigates  Africa  ?  What  is  the  shortest  steamer 
'Ute  between  the  ports  of  Western  Europe  arid 
astern    Asia  ?     What    canal    do    steamers    pass 


through  ?  What  telegraphic  communication  be- 
tween England  and  Bombay  ?  England  and  Singa- 
pore? England  and  Hong  Kong?  England  and 
Melbourne?  What  telegraphic  communication  has 
Russia  with  its  Pacific  coast  ports  ? 

Asia.  —  What  is  the  principal  seaport  on  the 
Mediterranean?  In  Southern  Arabia?  What  three 
ports  on  the  Arabian  Sea?  What  two  on  the  Bay 
of  Bengal?  What  port  in  Ceylon?  What  four 
ports  in  Indo-China  ?  What  are  the  chief  ports 
of  China?  Of  Japan?  What  peninsula  of  Asia  is 
crossed  by  a  railway  ?  What  are  the  principal  cara- 
van routes  of  Asia  ? 


Africa — Name  three  African  ports  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. Six  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  What  sea- 
port at  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa?  What 
six  on  the  eastern  coast?  What  are  the  principal 
caravan  routes  of  Africa? 

The  Archipelagoes.  —  What  port  in  Java?  In 
the  Philippine  Islands?  What  are  the  principal 
seaports  of  Australia?  Of  New  Zealand?  What 
port  in  Tasmania  ?  In  the  Sandwich  Islands  ?  In 
the  Society  Islands  ?  At  what  ports  do  steamers 
touch  in  going  from  Sydney  to  San  Francisco? 
What  steamer  route  between  Australia  and  South 
America  ? 


no 


COMMERCIAL   CENTERS   AND   THEIR   EXPORTS. 


COMMERCIAL  CENTERS  AND  THEIR  EXPORTS. 


Acapulco  . 
Adelaide    . 
Aden      .     . 
Alexandria 
Algiers  .     . 
Amsterdam 
Archangel 
Astrakhan 
Auckland  . 
Azore  Isles 
Bahia    .    . 
Baltimore . 
Bankok .     . 
Barcelona. 
Batavia.    . 
Bergen  .    . 
Bombay     . 
Bordeaux  . 
Boston  .    . 
Bremen 
Buenos  Ayre 
Bushire 
Calcutta     . 
Callao     .     . 
Canary  Isles 
Canton  .     . 
Cape  Town 
Cartagena . 
Cayenne     . 
Charleston 
Chicago     . 
Cincinnati . 
Constantinopl 
Dantzic 
Galveston  . 
Genoa    .    . 
Georgetown 
Glasgow     . 
Guayaquil  . 
Halifax .     . 
Hamburg  . 
Havana 
Havre    .    . 
Hong  Kong 
Honolulu  . 
Irkutsk  .    . 
Jamaica 
La  Guayra 
Lisbon  .    . 


SILVER,  COPPER,  SKINS,  COCOA,  INDIGO,  MAHOGANY,  DRUGS. 

WOOL,  WHEAT,  COPPER. 

COFFEE,  DATES,  DRUGS,  PEARLS. 

GRAIN,  COTTON,  DATES,  DRUGS. 

GRAIN,  CATTLE,  CORK,  COPPER,  DATES. 

BUTTER,  CHEESE,  SILK   MANUFACTURES,  SPICES. 

FLAX,  HEMP,  SKINS,  FOREST-PRODUCTS,  TALLOW. 

FISH,  OIL,  LAMB-SKINS. 

WOOL,  GOLD,  LUMBER,  FLAX,  CATTLE-PRODUCTS. 

WINE,  ORANGES,  LE.MOXS. 

SUGAR,  TOBACCO,  DIAMONDS,  NUTS. 

TOBACCO,  WHEAT,  PETROLEUM,  OYSTERS,  COAL. 

RICE,  SPICES,  SUGAR. 

WINES,  CORK,  IRON,  COPPER,  QUICKSILVER,  DRIED   FRUITS. 

SUGAR,  COFFEE,  RICE,  INDIGO,  TOBACCO. 

LUMBER,  FISH,  ICE. 

COTTON,   OPIUM,   COFFEE,   SPICES,   SUGAR,   INDIGO. 

WINES,   BRANDIES,   PRESERVED   FRUITS  AND   MEATS. 

VARIED   MANUFACTURES,  PREPARED  FOODS,  ICE. 

LINEN  AND  WOOLE.N  GOODS,  GLASS,  WINE,  BEER,  GRAIN. 

WOOL,  CATTLE-PRODUCTS. 

SILK,   SHAWLS,   CARPETS,   WOOL,   DRUGS,   DRIED   FRUITS. 

COTTON,   OPIUM,   RICF,  TEA,  JUTE,   INDIGO,   SUGAR. 

GUANO,   SALTPETER,  CINCHONA-BARK,  WOOL,   SUGAR. 

COCHINEAI,   FRUITS,   VEGETABLES,   SODA. 

TEA,   SILK,  CHINF.se  WARES. 

WOOL,  HIDES,  OSTRICH   PLUMES,  WI.NE,  COPPER,  DIAMONDS. 

CINCHONA-BARK,  COFFEE,  COTTON,  TOBACCO. 

SUGAR,   COFFEE,  COTTON,   PEPPER,   AND  OTHER  SPICES. 

COTTON,    RICE. 

GRAIN,   PORK,   LUMBER. 

GRAIN,   PORK,   FLAX,  TOBACCO. 

GRAI.V,  TOBACCO,   DRUGS,   FRUITS,  CARPETS,   SILKS. 

GRAIN,   LUMBER,   BEER,  WOOLENS,   LINENS. 

COTTON,   GR.'^IN,   WOOL. 

SILKS,   OLIVE-OIL,   WINE  AND  SPIRITS,   FRUITS. 

SUGAR,   COFFEE,  COTTON,    INDIGO,   SPICES. 

IRON  AND  COTTON  MANUFACTURES,  IRON  SHIPS,  CHEMICALS. 

COCOA,   CINCHONA-BARK,   DYE-STUFFS. 

DRIED   FISH,   COAL,  GYPSUM,   GRINDSTONES,   LUMBER. 

LINEN   AND  WOOLEN  GOODS,  GLASS,  WINE,  BEER,  GRAIN. 

SUGAR,  COFFEE,  TOBACCO,  CIGARS. 

ARTICLES  OF  TASTE  AND  FASHION,  WINE,   BRANDY,   OIL. 

TEA,   RAW  SILK,   CHINESE  WARES. 

SUGAR,   COCOANUT-OIL. 

(FROM   CHINA  TO   RUSSIA)  TEA,   FRUITS,   PORCELAIN,   SILK. 

SUGAR,   RUM,   MOLASSES,   COFFEE,   ALLSPICE. 

COFFEE,   COCOA,   INDIGO,   CATTLE-PRODUCTS. 

WINE,  OLIVE-OIL,  FRUITS,   SALT. 


Liverpool  .     . 
London .    .    . 
Madeira  Isles 
Malaga  .    .    . 
Manila  .     .    . 
Marseilles .    . 
Mauritius  Island 
Melbourne 
Mobile   .     .     . 
Monrovia  .     . 
Montevideo    . 
Montreal    .     . 
Morocco     .     . 
New  Orleans 
New  York 
Odessa  . 
Okhotsk 
Oporto  . 
Panama 
Para  .     . 
Paris 
Pemambuco . 
Philadelphia 
Portland,  Me. 
Portland,  Or. 
Quebec  .    .     . 
Rangoon    .    . 
Reykjavik.     . 
Riga.    .    .    . 
Rio  Janeiro  . 
Rome    .    .    . 
San  Francisco 
Savannah  .     . 
Shanghai  .     . 
Sierra  Leone 
Singapore .    . 
Smyrna      .    . 
Stettin   .    .    . 
St.  Johns,  N.F. 
St.  Louis   .    . 
St.  Paul  de 
St.  Petersburg 
Sydney .    . 
Tamatave  , 
Trieste  .     . 
Valparaiso 
Vera  Cruz 
Victoria 
Vienna  .     . 
Yakutsk 
Yokohama 


:  Loanda 


IRON,  CUTLERY,  EARTHEN-WARE,  COTTONS,  CHEMICALS,  COAL 

BRITISH   MANUFACTURES,  FOREIGN   PRODUCTS. 

WINES,   FRUITS,   NUTS. 

ORANGES,   WINE,    RAISINS. 

SUGAR,  TOBACCO,  CIGARS,   HEMP,  COFFEE,   INDIGO. 

WINE,   BRANDY,   SARDINES,   SILK,   FRUITS. 

SUGAR,   VANILLA. 

GOLD,   WOOL,   WINE. 

COTTON,   FOREST-PRODUCTS. 

PALM-OIL,   WAX,   PEPPER,  GROUND-NUTS. 

CATTLE-PRODUCTS. 

BREADSTUFFS,   FOREST-PRODUCTS,   DAIRY-PRODUCTS. 

GO.\T-SKINS,   WOOL,   BEANS,   MAIZE,  OLIVE-OIL. 

COTTON,   SUGAR,  TOBACCO. 

GRAIN,   VARIED   .MANUFACrURES,  PETROLEUM,   PROVISIONS 

WHEAT,  TALLOW,   SALT,  TIMBER. 

FURS,   FISH-OILS. 

WINE,   OLIVE-OIL,   FRUITS,   CORK. 

COrroN,  COFFEE,  CINCHONA-BARK,   TOBACCO. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  CACAO,   RICE,   SUGAR,   TAPIOCA,   DRUGS. 

VARIED  FRENCH   MANUFACTURES  AND   PRODUCTS. 

COTTON,   COFFEE,    SUGAR. 

IRON,  COAL,   PETROLEUM,   MACHINERY. 

LU.MBER,   STAVES,  CASKS,  ETC. 

WHEAT,   FLOUR,   SALMON,   LUMBER. 

SHIPS,   LUMBER,   GRAIN,   FISH. 

RICE,  TEAK-WOOD,    BAMBOO,  COTTON. 

OIL,    FISH,   EIDER-DOWN,   FEATHERS. 

GRAIN,   HEMP,   FLAX,   LUMBEjl. 

COFFEE,   GOLD,   DIAMONDS,  TOBACCO,   HIDES. 

PICTURES,   STATUES,   AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  OF  ART. 

WHEAT,  WOOL,   WINES,   PRECIOUS   METALS. 

COTTON,   LUMBER. 

TEA,   SILK,  COTTON,  CHINESE  WARE.S. 

PALM-OIL,  TIMBER,   GINGER,  PEPPER,   BEESWAX,   IVORY. 

TIN,   SPICES,   RATTANS,  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

FIGS,   SPONGES,   RAW  SILK,  CARPETS,    DRUGS. 

GRAIN,  OIL-CAKE,  WOOL,   BEER. 

COD-FISH,   SEAL-SKINS,   COD  AND  SEAL  OIL. 

GRAIN,  MACHINERY,  MANUFACTURES. 

WAX,   IVORY. 

TALLOW,    FLAX,   HEMP,   LEATHER,   FURS,   SKINS. 

WOOL,   CATTLE-PRODUCTS,  TIN,   COPPER,   GOLD. 

CAOUTCHOUC,   CATTLE,   HIDES,   WAX,    EBONY-WOOD. 

GRAI.N,   FLOUR,   LUMBER,  WINE,   OIL. 

GRAIN,  COPPER,   SILVER,   WOOL,   HIDES. 

COFFEE,   VANILLA,   HIDES,  TOBACCO,  COCHINEAL,   INDIGO. 

FURS,   LUMBER,  COAL. 

LEATHER  GOODS,  GL.\SS-WARE,  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

FURS. 

SILK,   TEA,   RICE,  JAPANESE  GOODS. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   TABLE. 

What  are  the  principal  grain  ports  of  the  world  ?  From  what  ports  is 
wheat  shipped  ?  Flour?  Rice?  What  cities  export  sugar  ?  Tea?  Coffee? 
Cocoa?  Fruits?  Wines?  Beer?  Olive-oil?  From  what  ports  do  we 
receive  drugs  ?  What  ports  of  the  Old  World  send  out  spices  ?  What  ports 
of  the  New  World?  Through  what  European  port  do  we  receive  the  spices 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies?  ^ns.  Amsterdam.  What  cities  export  salt? 
Fish  ?     Dairy-products  ?     Tobacco  ? 

Enumerate  the  cotton  ports  of  the  world.  From  what  ports  are  cotton 
goods  shipped  ?  What  cities  send  out  wool  ?  What  are  the  principal  centers 
in  the  export  of  woolen  goods?     From  what  ports  is  silk  procured?     In 


what  part  of  the  world  are  these  ports  ?  Whence  do  we  obtain  linen  goods  ? 
What  ports  are  named  as  sending  out  shawls?  Leather  and  leather  goods  ? 
Furs  ?     Where  do  ostrich  plumes  come  from  ? 

What  ports  can  you  name  from  which  lumber  is  exported  ?  Whence  do 
we  procure  ornamental  woods?  Rattans?  Bamboo?  What  ports  are 
named  as  shipping  forest-products?  Caoutchouc?  Gutta-percha?  Cork? 
Petroleum  ?     Pearls  ?     Sponges  ?    Cattle-products  ?    Guano  ?    Eider-down  ? 

Name  several  ports  through  which  iron  and  iron  manufactures  are  dis- 
tributed. What  ports  are  named  as  shipping  coal?  In  what  countries, 
therefore,  is  coal  largely  found  ?  Copper?  Tin?  What  cities  e.xport  the 
precious  metals?  Soda?  Gypsum?  Judging  from  the  places  of  export, 
in  what  country  are  diamonds  found  ? 


1 1 1 


A 


SYSTEM    OF    MAP-DEAWING. 


BY    E.    -A..    A.TS^r>    A..    C.    A.PGA.II. 


This  system  of  Map-Drawing  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  originally  prepared  by  the  authors  and  published  in  1865.    Such  improvements  have  been 

introduced,  however,  as  the  pra(Aical  workings  of  the  system  have  shown  to  be  important. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


THE  study  of  geography  consists  principally  in  a  study 
of  the  form  and  locality  of  the  features  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Maps  give  a  much  better  idea  of  the  form  and 
locality  of  geographical  features  than  can  be  obtained 
from  descriptions  only;  hence,  maps  should  be  the 
principal  objects  of  study  in  geography. 

The  pupil  commits  his  lesson  in  text  to  memory,  and 
for  a  recitation,  he  repeats  it  to  the  teacher  as  given  by 
the  author.  In  studying  maps  the  same  rule  should  be 
observed;  that  is,  the  maps  should  be  committed  to 
memory,  and  for  a  recitation  they  should  be  reproduced 
as  given  in  the  book. 

That  form  is  easiest  remembered  which  the  hand  is 
taught  to  trace.  The  exercise  of  the  mind,  needed  to 
teach  the  hand  to  trace  a  form,  impresses  that  form  upon 
the  mind.  As  the  study  of  maps  is  a  study  of  form,  the 
manner  of  studying  them   should  be  by  map-drawing. 

In  learning  to  draw  maps,  the  pupil  needs  some  rule  or 
guide  to  assist  him  in  drawing  them  correctly,  and  also 
to  enable  him  to  judge  of  their  accuracy  when  drawn. 
This  assistance  is  best  afforded  by  the  use  of  geometrical 
figures  or  diagrams.  The  diagram  used  in  each  case, 
in  order  to  answer  the  purpose  intended,  should  be 
so  constructed  as  to  coincide  as  nearly  as  possible  in  its 
outline  with  the  boundaries  of  the  map  to  be  drawn.  By 
the  relative  lengths  of  the  lines  of  which  it  is  composed, 
it  should  express  the  general  laws  of  form  of  the  map  it 
is  intended  to  accompany,  and,  by  its  angles  and  division 
marks,  the  position  of  prominent  features  should  be  deter- 
mined. However  complex  and  irregular  the  map  may 
be,  the  diagram  should  be  so  simple  that  it  can  be  readily 
constructed  and  easily  remembered  by  the  pupils. 

In  the  construction  of  the  diagrams  used  for  drawing 
the  Continents,  the  first  line  in  each  case  serves  as  a  measure 
for  determining  the  lengths  of  the  other  lines.  For  the 
States  no  additional  diagram  is  used,  because  the  bounding 
lines  are  generally  straight,  and  they  themselves  when 
taken  together  form  a  geometrical  figure.  In  drawing  the 
States,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  select  one  of  the 
straight  lines  forming  the  boundary  for  a  measuring  unit. 
The  Hne  selected  should  be  a  convenient  measure  or  mul- 
tiple of  the  other  lines. 

In  conducting  exercises  in  map-drawing,  the  class 
should  be  practiced,— ^^i/  in  drawing  upon  the  black- 
board, under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher; 
second,  in  drawing  upon  slates,  their  work  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  teacher;  and  third,  in  executing  maps  upon 
paper,  to  be  presented  for  the  criticism  of  both  the  teacher 
and  the  class. 

Either  the  teacher  or  one  of  the  more  skillful  pupils 
should  execute  a  well-finished  and  accurate  map  upon 
the  blackboard.  From  this  drawing — which  is  much  to 
be  preferred  to  any  printed  outline  map — the  class  may 
recite  their  lesson,  and  upon  it  each  of  the  new  features, 
as  they  are  learned  from  day  to  day,  may  be  represented. 

It  is  well  to  accompany  eveiy  lesson  in  map-drawing 


with  more  or  less  practice  in  rapid  sketching.  In  order 
to  excite  emulation  for  quick  work,  the  lesson  may 
be  drawn  on  the  board,  and  the  exercise  -timed  by 
the  teacher.  Pupils,  by  practice,  will  soon  be  able  to 
draw  a  diagram  in  half  a  minute,  a  State  in  from 
half  a  minute  to  two  minutes,  and  a  Continent  in  from 
three  to  five  minutes.  Concert  recitation  should  frequently 
accompany  rapid  sketching. 

An  exercise  called  talking  and  chalking  will  be  found 
both  interesting  and  valuable.  The  pupil,  while  he  is 
drawing  a  map,  briefly  and  in  a  lively  manner,  describes 
the  features  as  he  represents  them ;  his  verbal  explana- 
tions all  the  while  keeping  pace  with  his  illustrations 
made  with  the  chalk. 

All  directions  and  exercises  in  map-drawing  should  be 
such  as  to  prepare  the  pupil  to  draw  rapidly,  accurately, 
and  without  the  copy. 

After  the  pupils  have  learned  to  draw  a  map  with 
sufficient  accuracy,  and  are  able  to  describe  satisfactorily 
the  features  it  contains,  they  may,  with  the  use  of  colors 
and  India  ink,  be  taught  to  draw  and  embellish  one  for 
preservation.  Not  much  time,  however,  should  be  spent 
in  producing  highly  ornamented  maps.  A  slate-pencil  and 
slate,  lead-pencil  and  paper,  white  crayon  and  blackboard, 
are  all  the  materials  usually  needed  in  map-drawing  exer- 
cises.    Rapid  work  and  much  of  it  should  be  the  motto. 

Special  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  method 
employed  for  representing  the  population  of  cities  and 
the  heights  of  elevations.  The  symbols  used  will  greatly 
assist  the  memory  in  retaining  these  facts.  Special  lessons 
may  be  given  to  teach  their  meaning.  Their  use  should 
be  required  in  all  map-drawing  exercises. 

In  drawing  a  Continent,  the  pupils  should  be  taught,— ;;frj/,  to 
construct  the  diagram  accurately ;  second,  to  draw  the  coast  line, 
and  to  describe  allthe  features  formed  by  it,  such  as  peninsulas,  capes, 
bays,  gulfs,  &c. :  and  third,  to  draw  and  describe  the  internal 
featurx:s,  such  as  mountains,  lakes,  rivers  and  cities.  It  is  all  impor- 
tant that  the  pupils  should  be  able  to  draw  the  outline  of  a  Continent 
readily  and  accurately,  before  they  attempt  to  represent  the  internal 
features ;  for  upon  an  imperfect  drawing  of  the  outline,  the  details 
must  necessarily  be  imperfect. 

In  describing  the  features  of  a  map,  observe  the  following  order 
and  directions : — 

Diagram. — Explain  in  full  the  manner  of  its  construction. 

Pointi  of  Coincidence. — Name  in  order  the  angles  and  division 
marks  upon  the  diagram,  and  the  features  upon  the  map,  the 
location  of  which  they  determine. 

Peninsulas. — State  from  what  portion  of  the  Continent  they  pro- 
ject, and  by  what  waters  they  are  embraced. 

Capes. — State  from  what  portion  of  the  Continent  they  project, 
and  into  what  waters. 

Bays. — Give  their  location,  and  the  names  of  the  bodies  of  water 
to  which  they  are  tributary. 

Islands. — State  where  situated,  and  name  the  waters  by  which 
they  are  surrounded. 

Mountains. — Give  their  height,  the  general  direction  in  which 
they  extend,  and  the  part  of  the  Continent  where  they  are  located. 

Lakes. — State  where  located,  and  name  the  river  which  forms  the 
outlet. 

RIvere.— Bute  where  they  rise,  in  what  direction  they  flow,  and 
into  what  wateis. 

Political  Divisions. — Bound  the  country,  and  name,  botmd, 
and  give  the  capital  of  each  of  the  divisions. 

Citiea. — Give  location  and  population. 


EXPLANATION  OP  THE  SIGNS 

USED  TO  BEPBESENT   THE   POPULATION  OF  THE 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 


FIRST  CLASS. 
In  the  First  Class  only  ono  Sign  is  used  viz.  a  ronnd  dot. 
•  represents  under  10  000  Inhabitants. 

SECOND  CLASS.  THIRD  CLASS. 

Each  Line  of  tho  Soconrl  Class         The  markings  of  the  Thicd  CUm 
represents  a  population  of  10.000.        have  a  Dot  in  the  centre.   Eah 
Line  upon  this  Dot  represeuta 
lOOAW  population. 

& JOO.OOO 

+. 200,000 

■It 300,000 


a 10,000 

+ 20,000 

•tt 30,000 

It <0,000 

# 50,000 

% fO.OOO 

^ 70,000 

^ 80,000 

^jjjjf 90,000 


4t 400,000 

#_ _.600.000 

#- 600,000 

W(. .71)0.000 

^- __800,000 

^p .<IUO,0CO 


FOURTH  CLASS, 
Tlie  markings  of  the  Fourth  Class  have  a  Dot  and  Circle  (  •  )  in 
tho  centre.    Each  Lino  upon  this  Dot  and  Circle  represents  1,000,000 
inhabitants. 


■«•- 


_1,000.000 
-2,000,000 


..3,000.000 
.4,000,000 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  SIGNS 

USED  TO  BEPBESENT  THE 

ELEVATION  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS. 


EANGES. 

Hill  and  Mountain  Ranges,  Like  the  Cities,  are  dividwl  into  Four 
classes.  The  First  isrepreeentedby  aseries  of  Parallel  Curves;  the  Se. 
cond  by  a  series  of  Interlocking  Curves;  the  Third  by  a  Wared  Line} 
and  the  Fourth  by  a  Zigzag  Line ;  as  follows: 


»)))}))))))))»))»    Tint  CtaM  or  jriJff.—irnderaW) ft.  Wgh. 

.-^^■^^^.-^iiSiAft.     SrcoiidC;n.«,-Bel«-ecn  2000  4  8000  ft. -high. 
^'^^^'SattuFaaSi)     or  Between.  >i  and H-imllesliigli. 


shigb. 

Thvrd  C/a«.— Betweett  8000  1 16,000  It.  llgh, 
or  BetM-een  1  ^  and  3  milei  high. 


^WW^9'9v'$S    ■^""^'^  Class,  -Oret  16.000  ftet  high, 
^^1'^^      or  over  3  miles  high. 

PEAKS. 

For  Peaks  under  one  mile  high  each  Cnrve  upon  the  right representa 
One- Fourth  of  a  mile  Elevation;  for  those  cne  mile  high  or  more,  each 
Line  upon  the  right  represents  One  Mile  in  Elevation  and  the  Dash 
underneath  Ono  Haifa  Mile. 


O    Ji  of  «  mile  Mgh. 

A 

2H  miles  iHgh. 

n\  3i      ..    - 

A 

3        ,.        „ 

e^  a      .    , 

A 

3ii     „       .. 

A   1        .     - 

/k. 

4        ..       .. 

A    Ui  miles  Urh. 

A. 

<X     ..       ™ 

A     2       „        „ 

A. 

5        ..        » 

Sytttm Tiilailtd  Ocloberli(h.,lata. 


Exiered,  according  la  Ad  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  iji  E.  A.  &' A.  C.  APCAR,  in  Ike  Office  of  Ike  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


t 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Diagram. — 1.  Draw  a  quadrant,  and  divide  it  into  fotir 
equal  parts,  as  represented  in  the  figure.  Through  the 
first  division  at  i,  and  the  right  angle,  draw  the  first  line 
of  the  diagram  the  length  desired  for  the  map. 

2.  From  the  centre  of  this  line,  draw  the  line  C  D  at 
right  angles  with  it,  and  one-half  its  length.  Coimect 
A  D  and  B  D. 

3.  Extend  the  line  C  D  toward  E,  making  the  whole 
length  D  £,  equal  to  A  D  or  B  D,  and  draw  the  lines  X  E 
and  E  B. 

4.  Divide  the  line  A  E  into  four  equal  parts,  and  from 
the  upper  division-point  at  G,  draw  the  line  6  H  at  right 
angles  to  A  E,  and  equal  to  E  C  in  length.  Connect 
AandH. 

6.  Divide  the  line  E  B  into  two  equal  parts,  and  firom 
its  centre,  and  at  right  angles  with  it,  draw  the  line  I  J 
one-half  the  length  of  E  C,  and  connect  E  and  J,  and  J 
and  B. 

6.  Divide  the  lines  C  D  and  C  B  each  into  two  equal 
parts,  and  the  lines  A  D  and  D  B  each  into  six  equal 
parts. 

7.  Sub-divide  the  lower  division  of  the  line  D  B  into 
three  equal  parts,  and  from  the  division-point  at  L  draw 
Ii  M,  and  from  M  draw  ■  N,  and  from  5  draw  N  0, — 
making  the  length  of  each  line  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the 
distance  from  B  to  K,  or  equal  to  the  distance  from 
I.  to  K. 

It  will  be  observed  that  if  the  diagram  is  correctly 
drawn,  the  lines  D  A,  D  E  and  D  B  are  equal  in  length, 
and  the  line  A  E  is  vertical. 

Position, — North  America  is  situated  North  of  the 
Equator,  and  is  joined  to  South  America  by  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama. 

Extent. — The  length  of  the  Continent,  extending  from 
Point  Barrow,  on  the  North,  to  the  Port  of  Guatemala  on 
the  South,  is  4,800  miles. 

General  Form. — The  general  form  of  North  America 
is  triangular.  It  is  wide  toward  the  North,  and  narrow 
toward  the  South.  The  Arctic  and  Atlantic  coast-lines 
are  nearly  straight  in  their  general  direction,  while  the 
Pacific  coast-line  is  curved. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — The  position  of  Point  Bar- 
row is  determined  by  the  northern  angle  of  the  diagram; 
Cape  Charles  by  the  eastern  angle ;  Port  of  Guatemala  by 
the  southern  angle ;  Bay  of  San  Francisco  by  the  western 
angle;  and  the  western  extremity  of  Alaska  Peninsula 
by  the  north-western  angle. 

*  Drawing  the  Map. — AreUe  CooH. —  Commence  at 
Point  Barrow.  Make  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River 
opposite  the  first  division;  Victoria  Land  on  the  second; 
the  mouth  of  Hudson  Bay  between  the  third  and  fourth, 
and  Ungava  Bay  and  Cape  Chidley  near  the  fifth  division. 
The  southern  extremity  of  Hudson  Bay  touches  the  line 
C  D  near  its  centre. 

AOantlc  Coast. — Make  the  Pena.  of  Nova  Scotia  oppo- 
site the  first  division ;  Cape  Cod  north  of  the  second,  and 
Cape  Fear  at  the  third.  The  western  shore  of  Florida 
crosses  at  the  fourth  division;  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexi- 
co is  between  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  Yucatan  Pena.  ex- 
tends as  far  north  as  the  fifth.  The  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  crosses  the  line  C  B  near  its  centre,  and  touches  the 
line  E  B.  The  shore  of  Central  America,  and  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  follows  closely  the  zigzag  line  from  E  to  0. 

Paetfie  Coast. — California  Peninsula  extends  nearly  as 
far  south  as  the  angle  at  J,  and  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  California  crosses  the  line  I  J  near  its  centre. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  is  on  the 
line  C  D,  midway  between  its  centre  and  G ;  also,  that  Lake  Erie  is 
midway  between  the  centres  of  the  lines  c  D  and  BD. 


*  In  these  directions  for  drawing,  some  features  arc  referred  to 
which  are  not  found  upon  the  accompanying  maps.  In  such  cases 
it  is  expected  that  the  pupil  will  refer  to  the  other  maps  in  the  book. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Diagram. — 1.  Draw  the  vertical  line  A  B  the  length 
desired  for  the  map,  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  parts. 
From  the  upper  division-point,  draw  a  horizontal  line  to 
the  right,  one-half  the  length  of  the  first  line,  and  divide 
it  into  three  equal  parts.  Extend  this  horizontal  line 
one-third  of  its  length  to  the  left. 

2.  Draw  straight  lines  from  C  to  P,  from  F  to  A,  from 
A  to  E,  and  from  E  to  B,  and  divide  the  lines  F  A,  A  E, 
and  E  B,  each  into  three  equal  parts. 

General  Form. — South  America  in  its  general  form  is  wedge* 
shaped — being  wide  toward  the  north  and  narrow  toward  the  south. 
Its  coast-line  is  simple,  and  deviates  but  little  from  the  lines  of  the  dia- 
gram. The  length  of  the  Continent  from  north  to  south  is  4,500  miles. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — The  position  of  the  Peninsula  of  Para- 
guana  is  determined  by  the  northern  angle  of  the  figure;  Cape  St 
Roque  by  the  eastern  angle  ;  Cape  Pillar  by  the  southern,  and  Cape 
Parina  by  tbe  western.  Opposite  the  second  division-point,  on  the 
line  F  A,  is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ;  and  opposite  the  second,  on  the 
line  A  ■,  is  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Opposite  the  first  division  on 
the  line  E  B  is  Cape  Frio,  and  opposite  the  second  is  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  AFRICA. 


Diagram. — L  By  means  of  a  quadrant  divided  into  six 
equal  parts,  as  represented  in  the  figure,  draw  the  first  line 
of  the  diagram  the  length  desired  for  the  map. 

2.  Divide  this  line  into  two  equal  parts  at  €,  and  the 
upper  half  in  four  equal  parts. 

3.  With  the  points  A  and  B  as  centres,  and  with  a 
radius  equal  to  three-fourths  of  the  first  line,  draw  two 
arcs  to  intersect  D,  and  draw  the  lines  A  D  and  B  D.  In 
the  same  manner  with  the  points  A  and  C  as  centres,  and 
with  a  radius  equal  to  three-fourths  of  the  line  A  C,  deter- 
mine the  point  EJ  and  draw  A  E  and  C  E. 

4.  Divide  the  line  A  D  into  two  equal  parts,  and  draw 
the  perpendicular  F  H  equal  to  one-eighth  of  the  first  line. 
Divide  the  part  F  D  into  two  equal  parts,  and  draw  the 
lines  A  H  and  H  G.  Trisect  each  of  the  lines  A  H,  0  B, 
B  €  and  C  E. 

General  Form. — Africa  resembles  both  North  America  and  South 
America  in  its  general  form,  being  wide  at  the  north  and  narrow 
toward  the  south.  Its  coast  is  very  regular,  .like  that  of  South 
America.  Its  length,  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape  Agulhas,  is  5,000 
miles.  like  South  America,  it  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Equator. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — The  position  of  Cape  Spartel  is  deter- 
mined by  the  northern  angle  of  the  diagram ;  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  by 
the  north-eastern  angle  ;  Cape  Guardafui  by  the  eastern  angle;  Cape 
Agulhas  by  the  southern,  and  Cape  Roxo  by  the  western. 

Outline. — (Commence  at  Cape  Spartel,  and  draw  the  northern  and 
eastern  coasts ;  then,  from  the  same  point,  draw  the  western  coast. 
The  coast  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape  Bon  is  without  the  line  of  the 
diagram  ;  then  it  crosses  the  line,  and  forms  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  oppo- 
site the  second  division-point.  The  western  shore  of  the  Red  Sea 
follows  the  line  H  Q,  and  makes  an  inward  curve  between  S  and  s. 
The  eastern  shore  first  makes  a  small  outward  curve  ;  touches  the 
line  at  the  first  division-point,  and  then  makes  a  much  larger  bend 
without  the  line,  touching  again  at  Cape  Agulhas.  From  this  point 
it  deviates  but  little  from  the  diagram  till  it  reaches  Cape  Lopez. 
Between  this  point  and  the  first  division  on  the  line  C  E,  there  is  a 
large  inward  bend  forming  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  It  then  bends  with- 
out the  line  till  we  reach  Cape  Roxo.  From  Cape  Roxo  to  Cape 
Spartel  the  coast  is  wholly  without  the  line. 


Fi£.  1. 

Figure  1  represent-^  a  convenient  Ruler  for  pupils  to  use  in  drawing 
maps  upon  the  blackboard.  It  is  twenty  inches  long,  and  divided 
into  halves,  thirds,  fourths  and  sixths.  A  similar  one,  six  inches 
long,  may  be  used  for  drawing  on  slate  or  paper. 


Figure   3   represents   an   easy 
method  for  drawing  a  quadrant. 


Figure   3   represents   an  easy 
method  for  uisecting  a  tine. 


Note. — In  the  construction  of  diagrams,  and  in  the  division  <rf 
lines,  the  pupils  should  at  first  be  allowed  to  use  a  ruler,  such  as  the 
one  represented  in  figure  i.  After  some  practice,  however,  the  ruler 
should  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  figures  should  be  drawn  by  hand, 
guided  only  by  the  eye. 

In  drawing  a  quadrant,  a  piece  of  crayon  hdd  between  the  thumb 
and  fiist  finger  may  be  made  to  describe  the  arc  around  the  end  of 
the  fourth  finger,  as  represented  in  figure  2.  A  vertical  and  a  hori- 
zontal Une  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the  arc  will  complete  the 
quadrant.  Instead  of  the  hand,  a  short  string  with  a  piece  of  crayon 
tied  to  the  end  of  it  may  be  used ;  or,  each  pupil  may  be  furnished 
with  a  quarter  of  a  circle,  cut  out  of  a  piece  of  writing  paper,  having 
the  divisions  of  quarters  and  sixths  marked  upon  it. 

In  dividing  a  line  into  three  equal  parts,  use  the  finger  of  one  hand 
and  a  crayon  in  the  other,  and  place  them  so  that  the  three  parts  ap- 
pear equal,  as  represented  in  figure  3. 

In  dividing  a  line  into  four  or  six  parts,  first  bisect  it,  and  then 
bisect  or  trisect  each  half 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  diflFerent  lines  of  the  diagrams  are 
drawn  in  the  order  they  are  lettered,  and  that  the  divisions  are  made 
in  the  order  they  are  numbered. 

In  drawing  upon  paper  or  slate,  the  diagram  should  be  in  very 
light  lines.  For  blackboard  work,  the  figure  should  be  drawn  with 
a  slate-penciL 

MODEL  LESSON  IN  MAP-DRAWING. 

In  Map-drawing  Exercises,  the  pupils  may  either  be  required  to 
describe  their  work  in  full,  without  the  assistance  of  questions ;  or, 
the  lessons  may  consist  of  a  series  of  questions  and  answers  similar 
to  the  following  model : — 

North  America. — After  the  diagram  is  made,  the  class  is  pre- 
pared  to  draw  the  map, — first,  with  the  atlas  in  hand,  and  afterwards 
from  memory.  Every  order  given  by  the  teacher  should  be  executed 
by  the  class  simultaneously,  and  with  military  promptness  and  pre- 
cision. The  execution  should  commence  immediately  after  the  last 
word  of  the  order  is  given.  Each  pupil  is  supposed  to  have  his  own 
diagram  on  the  board  upon  which  he  draws  his  map. 

Outline:  Teachir. — What  is  the  most  northern  point  of  North 
America? 

Scholars. — Point  Barrow. 

T. — Show  where  Point  Barrow  is  located.  In  what  direction  firom 
it  is  Cape  Charles  ? 

S. — South-east. 

T.— Point  where  Cape  Charles  b  located.    (Scholars  point.) 

Now  make  a  dot  showing  the  location  of  each  of  the  following 
places  between  these  two  Capes: — 1st.  For  Cape  Bathurst.  (Scholars 
made  the  dot  with  the  crayon.)  ad.  For  Victoria  Land.  3d.  For 
the  northern  extremity  of  Melville  Pena.  4th.  For  Hudson  Strait. 
What  large  bay  between  Melville  Peninsula  and  Hudson  Strait? 

SI— Hudson  Bay. 

T. — sth.  For  the  southern  extremity  of  Hudson  Bay.  (Dot.)  6th. 
For  Cape  Chidley.    What  bay  south-west  from  Cape  Chidley? 

S. — Ungava  Bay. 

T. — Draw  the  coast-line  from  Point  Barrow  to  Cape  Bathurst. 
(Scholars  draw.)  From  Cape  Bathurst  to  Victoria  Land.  From 
Victoria  Land  to  Melville  Peninsula.  Draw  Hudson  Bay  and  James 
Bay.     Draw  the  line  from  Hudson  Strait  to  Cape  Charles. 

The  teacher  should  now  make  a  brief  inspection  of  the  work  done^ 
and  point  out  and  correct  all  the  faults  made. 

In  this  manner  the  outline  of  North  America  should  be  completed. 

Mountains:  T.— How  far  do  the  Rocky  Mountains  extend? 

S. — Through  the  entire  length  of  North  America. 

T. — What  is  their  elevation? 

5.— Between  8,000  and  16,000  feet,  except  the  northern  portion, 
which  is  only  between  3,000  and  8,000  feet 

y.— Draw  the  Rocky  Mountains  nearly  parallel  with,  and  at  a  pro- 
per disunce  from  the  Pacific  Coast  What  range  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Continent? 

5.— The  Appalachian  Mountains. 

7'.— What  is  the  elevation  of  this  range? 

S. — About  2,000  feet. 

T.—Draw  it.  The  teacher  should  now  inspect  the  drawing  of  dM 
mountains  and  correct  mistakes. 

Lakes :  T.— What  three  lakes  have  their  outlet  through  the  Mac« 
kenzie  River? 

5.— Great  Bear  Lake,  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  Athabasca  I^e. 

y.— Point  where  the  first  is  located ;  the  second ;  the  third.  X>raw 
the  first ;  the  second  ;  the  third. 

In  this  manner  complete  the  drawing  of  the  lakes. 

Rivers:   T.— Describe  the  Yukon  River. 

5.  —It  rises  near  the  Pacific  Coast  and  west  of  the  Great  Slave 
Lake;  flows,  first,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  then  westerly  throu^ 
the  country  of  Alaska,  and  empties  into  Bchring  Sea. 

7*.— Draw  it.  Follow  in  the  same  manner  with  the  Mackenrie; 
Nelson;  Albany;  St.  Lawrence;  Ottawa;  Savannah,  and  Alabama. 

7"— Describe  the  Mississippi  River. 

5.— It  rises  in  a  small  lake  west  of  Lake  Superior,  and  south  of  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods :  flows  a  southerly  course  through  the  United 
States,  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

T. — Draw  it.     Draw  the  tributaries,  and  describe  them. 

Complete  the  rivers  in  this  way,  and  inspect  the  work. 

Cities  :  7!— Locate  the  cities  as  I  name  them,  taking  pains  to  show 
the  population  of  each  as  it  is  done  in  the  book. 


^ 


^ 


S^    Tictoria 
.*  Laud 


H«A»°*C.  Chidley 


'>c.<=^ 


1  noIiAfttioil.  of 


MAS  OF 

NORTH  AMERICA 
By  E.  A.  4  A.  C.  ApgaT. 

I 1 

Scale  1000  Miles  to  an  Incli 


JILL 


JPena.  of  Parftgruan* 


CapcV 
Parin* 


.StBo<iue 


Tropic  of  Ckpricom 


%. 


=3 
CHom 


MAP  OF 

SOUTH  AMERICA 
B7  EJUtA.C~&i>(ar 


-J 


Scale  lOOO  Miles  to  an  Inch 


InoUnation  of 
flmjjiu. 


Troplo  of  CapriooTtt 
MAP  OF 
AFRICA 

By  E.  A.  4  A.  C.  Apgar. 


0.  of  oood  nop« 


ScBle  1000  Miles  to  an  Inch 


'*^^-<«ullu. 


C.  ToA 

MAP  OF 

^ 

AUSTRALIA 

v\ 

AMD 

"A\ 

NEW  ZEALAND 

%ftnd/  C. 


C.How* 


Ki 


Taaznania 


Scale  lUUO  JUUes  to  aa  Inch. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  AUSTRALIA. 

Diagram. — 1.  Draw  the  horizontal  line  A  B  the  length  desired  for  the  map, 
and  bisect  it  at  C. 

2.  Through  the  centre  C  draw  the  line  B  E  at  right  angles  to  A  B,  making 
C  D  and  C  E  each  one-third  the  length  of  A  B. 

3.  Draw  D  F  at  right  angles  to  D  E,  and  one-fourth  the  length  of  A  B,  and 
connect  F  and  B. 

4.  Draw  G  H  at  right  angles  to  D  E,  making  G  E  and  E  B,  each  equal  to  F  B 
in  length,  and  bisect  the  lines  C  E  and  E  H. 

Points  of  Coincidence. — North-west  Cape  coincides  with  the  angle  at  A;  Sandy  Cape, 
with  the  angle  at  B ;  Cape  Howe,  with  the  angle  at  H  ;  and  Cape  Leeuwin,  with  the  angle  at 
0.    Cape  York  is  a  little  north  of  the  angle  at  T. 

Map. — From  0  the  coast  extends  toward  the  centre  of  the  line  CM,  and  from  this  point  it 
extends  toward  and  crosses  near  the  bisecting  point  of  the  line  K  H. 

The  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  is  situated  between  D  and  W,  and  extends  toward  the  south  neariy 
halfway  to  the  line  1  B. 

Nolo.— If  Australia  is  drawn  without  New  Zealand,  the  first  line  A  B  should  be  inclined  about 
6vc  degrees  from  the  horizontal,  the  extremity  A  being  farther  north  than  the  extremity  B. 


"4 


MAP  OT 

EUROPE 

B7>.A.  *A.C.Ali(W.  ^^j, 


Scale  aw  HUM  U  ulaeh. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWING  EUROPE. 


Diagram.— Draw  the  horizontal  line  A  B  the 
length  desired  for  the  map.  This  line  connects 
the  mouth  of  the  Douro  River  with  Cape  Ap- 
sheron. Its  length  is  3,000  miles.  With  A  and  B 
as  centres,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  three-fourths 
of  A  B,  draws  arcs  to  intersect  at  C,  and  connect 
A  and  C,  and  B  and  C.  Divide  A  C  into  four, 
C  B  into  six,  and  A  B  into  eight  equal  parts. 
From  the  first  division  to  the  right  of  C,  and  from 
the  angle  A  draw  vertical  lines,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  each  one-eighth  the  length  of  A  B.  Con- 
nect H  and  1,  and  divide  the  right-hand  half  of 
this  line  into  fovr  equal  parts.  From  D  draw  a 
perpendicular  line  equal  to  two  and  one-half 
divisions  on  the  line  A  B,  and  bisect  it.  Connect 
C  and  F,  and  E  and  B.  From  K  draw  a  line  in 
the  direction  of  the  centre  of  C  B  until  it  meets  a 
vertical  line  drawn  from  the  angle  C. 

Map. — In  drawing  the  map  commence  at  c,  on  the 
coast  of  Norway,  and  draw,  in  order,  the  northern  and 
eastern  boundaries  ;  then  commence  again  at  C  and  draw 
the  western  and  southern  boundaries.  The  coast  of  Nor- 
way follows  the  line  C  A,  and  extends  south  to  a  point  about 
midway  between  C  and  K.  The  lines  C  L  and  I.  K  will 
assist  in  drawing  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
the  north-western  shores  of  Germany  and  France.  The 
head  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  is  near  the  first  division  to  the 
right  of  A,  on  the  line  A  B.  The  Gulfs  of  Lions  and  Genoa 
are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  second  division,  and  the  head 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea  embraces  the  third  division.  The  fifth 
division  marks  the  western  extremity  of  the  Black  Sea ; 
the  Sea  of  Azov  is  north  of  the  sixth  division,  and  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Black  Sea  is  near  the  seventh. 
Italy  resembles  in  outline  the  shape  of  a  boot.  The 
southern  extremity  is  between  the  first  and  second  divisions 
to  the  right  of  J  on  the  line  H  I.  The  Peninsula  of  Greece 
is  situated  between  the  second  and  third  divisions,  and 
extends  south  of  this  line  equal  to  one  division.  The  Sea 
of  Marmora  is  a  litde  north  of  I. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  DRAWI^G  ASIA. 


Diagram. — Draw  the  vertical  line  A  B  a  little 
more  than  one-half  the  length  desired  for  the  map, 
north  and  south.  Divide  it  into  three  equal  parts, 
and  the  upper  third  into  two  parts.  From  the 
point  B  draw  the  horizontal  line  B  C  one  and  one- 
sixth  times  the  length  of  A  B.  Bisect  it,  and  con- 
nect A  and  C.  Trisect  A  C,  then  bisect  the  middle 
division  and  trisect  the  upper.  With  the  points 
A  and  C  as  centres,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  one 
and  two-thirds  nmes  the  first  line,  draw  arcs  to 
intersect  at  D,  and  connect  A  and  D,  and  C  and  D. 
Trisect  A  D  and  bisect  the  middle  division. 
Divide  the  line  C  D  into  four  equal  parts,  and 
bisect  both  of  the  extreme  divisions.  Draw  the 
lines  E  P  and  5  L  and  bisect  them ;  also  one  from 
0  to  K  and  trisect  it  From  the  lower  trisecting 
point  on  the  line  0  K  draw  a  line  toward  J  till  it 
meets  the  line  X  L.  The  distance  measured  by 
the  line  A  C  is  5,300  miles. 

Map.— In  drawing  the  map  commence  at  East  Cape  and 
draw  in  order  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western  boun* 
daries,  including  the  Black  Sea;  then  commence  again  at 
East  Capo  and  finish  the  outline.  The  shore  of  Kam. 
chatka  crosses  at  the  first  division  on  the  line  DC;  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Ochotsk  is  at  G ;  the  Yellow 
Sea  is  near  the  centre  of  the  line  at  H ;  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin 
is  at  I;  and  the  Gulf  of  Siam  is  near  the  last  division.  If 
we  suppose  a  line  drawn  from  this  division-point  parallel 
with  the  line  A  C,  it  will  assist  in  determining  the  position 
of  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Capt 
Romania  coincides  with  the  angle  at  C,  ar  Cape  Coroo- 
rin  with  the  lower  division  on  the  line  O  K.  The  head  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  near  the  centre  of  the  triangle  1  Jl  L, 
The  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  is  at  R  ;  the  Isthmus  of  Suei 
between  A  and  H ;  and  the  Strait  of  Bosphorus,  at  A.  The 
Black  Sea  extends  as  far  east  as  the  first  division  ob  the 
line  A  C,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  touches  this  line  at  the 
second  division.  The  position  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Ural 
River,  and  Ural  Mountains  is  determined  by  the  line  X  C. 


ii6 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   AND    STATISTICAL   TABLES. 

A   considerable  part  of  the  matter  usually  found  in  Statistical  Tables  has  in  this  book  been  incorporated  in  the  text  and  in  the  various  Topical 

Reviews.     The  following  Tables  are  supplementary. 

POPULATION,  IN  EVEN  THOUSANDS,  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

[For  the  Population  of  the  Principal  Cities  of  the  United  States  see  page  59.J 


NORTH    AMERICA. 
Canada  and  Newfoundland. 

Montreal 140,000 

Quebec 62,000 

loronto 86,000 

Halifax 34.ooo 

St.  John 26,000 

St  John*s 23,000 

Ottawa 27,000 

Mexico. 

Mexico 225,000 

Leon 100,000 

Guadalaxara    ....  93,000 

Puebla 77,000 

Guanaxuato     ....  63,000 

Queretaro 48,000 

Central  America. 
New  Guatemala   .    .     .    56,000 

San  Jos* 18,000 

San  Salvador  ....     14,000 

West  Indies. 

Havana 230,000 

Santiago 96,000 

Kingston 35.000 

Pori-aii- Prince      .     .     .     27,000 

San  Jiisii 20,000 

San  Domingo  ....     16,000 

♦ 

SOUTH    AMERICA. 
Venezuela. 

Caracas 55,000 

Maracaybo 22,000 

Colombia. 

Bogota 40,000 

Cartagena 8,000 

Popayan 8,000 

Panama 18,000 

Ecuador. 

8uito 23,000 
uayaquil 20,000 

Peru. 

Lima 101,000 

Cuzco 18,000 

Callao 34,000 

Bolivia. 

La  Paz 26,000 

Cochabamba    ....  15,000 

Sucre 12,000 


Chili. 

Santiago 150,000 

Valparaiso 98,000 

Argentine  Confederation. 
Buenos  Ayres  ....  290,000 

Cordova 29,000 

Rosario 25,000 

Uruguay. 
Montevideo      ....    73,000 

Paraguay. 
Asuncion 20,000 

Brazil. 

Rio  Janeiro      ....  275,000 

Bahia 129,000 

Pemambuco  ....  117,000 
Maranham 32,000 

Guiana. 
Georgetown      ....    40.000 
Paramaribo       ....     25,000 

Cayenne 10,000 

♦— 

EUROPE. 
Norway. 

Christiania 122,000 

Bergen 39,000 

Sweden. 

Stockholm 177,000 

Gottenburg 78,000 

Russia. 

St.  Petersburg      .     .     .  876,000 

Moscow 612,000 

Warsaw 339,000 

Odessa 193,000 

Kishenev 112,000 

Riga 169,000 

Astrakhan 58,000 

C^on^tadt 48,000 

Archangel 20,000 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

London 4,764,000 

Glasgow 511,000 

Liverpool 552,000 

Manchester  ....  393,000 
Birmingham  ....  400,000 
Dublin 338,000 


Leeds 309,000 

Sheffield 284,000 

Edinburgh 228,000 

Bristol 206,000 

Belfast 174,000 

Bradford 180,000 

Dundee  .' 142,000 

Newcastle 145,000 

Hull 161,000 

Portsmouth       ....  128,000 

Leicester 122,000 

Sunderland 125,000 

Brighton 128,000 

Aberdeen 105,000 

Merthyr  Tydvil  .  .  .  49,000 
Nottingham  ....  112,000 
Cork 78,000 

Denmark. 

Copenhagen     ....  235,000 

Netherlands. 
Amsterdam      ....  328,000 

Rotterdam 157,000 

The  Hague      ....  123,000 

Belgium. 

Brussels 400,000 

Antwerp 163,000 

Ghent 133,000 

Li^ge 122,000 

France. 

Paris 3,269,000 

Lyons 376,000 

NIarseilles 360,000 

Bordeaux 221,000 

Lisle 178,000 

Toulouse 140,000 

St.  Etienne 124,000 

Nantes 124,000 

Rouen 105,000 

Havre     .     .     .     .     .     .  105,000 

Spain. 

Madrid 398,000 

Barcelona 249,000 

Malaga 116,000 

Valencia 143,000 

Seville 134,000 

Granada 76,000 

Cadiz 65,000 

Portugal. 

Lisbon 246,000 

Oporto 106,000 


Germany. 

Berlin 1,122,000 

Hamburg 410,000 

Breslau 272,000 

Dresden 220,000 

Munich 230,000 

Elberfeld- Barmen      .     .  189,000 

Cologne 145,000 

Leipsic 149,000 

Magdeburg       ....  137,000 

Konigsberg      ....  140,000 

Stuttgart 117,000 

H.inover 122,000 

Frankfort-on-t he-Main  .  164,000 

Dantzic 108,000 

Strasburg 104,000 

Nuremberg 100,000 

Bremen 112,000 

Austro- Hungary. 

Vienna i ,  1 03 ,000 

Buda-Pesth 360,000 

Prague 162,000 

Trieste 144,000 

Lemberg 110,000 

Gratz 97,000 

Switzerland. 

Geneva 68,000 

Basle 61,000 

Berne 44,000 

Zurich 76,000 

Italy. 

Naples 493,000 

Milan 321,000 

Rome 300,000 

Palermo 245,000 

Turin 253,000 

Florence 169,000 

Genoa 179,000 

Venice 133,000 

Bologna 123,000 

Messina 126,000 

Leghorn 98,000 

Roumania. 

Bucharest 221,000 

Jassy 90,000 

Galatz 80,000 

Servia. 

Belgrade 27,000 

Bulgaria. 
Sophia 21 ,000 


Turkey. 

Constantinople      .     .     .  600,000 
Adrianople 62,000 

Greece. 
Athens 63,000 

» 

AFRICA. 
Barbary  States. 

Timis 125,000 

Fez 100,000 

Mequincz 60,000 

Morocco 50,000 

Algiers 53,000 

Egypt. 

Cairo 327,000 

Alexandria 166,000 

Damietta 33,ooo 

Suez 11,000 

Port  Said 13,000 

• 

ASIA. 

Turkey. 

Smyrna 150,000 

Damascus 150,000 

Bcyrout 70,000 

Erzeroum 60,000 

Brusa 60,000 

Jerusalem 28,000 

Asiatic  Russia. 

Bokhara 70,000 

Tashkend 100,000 

Tiflis 104,000 

Irkutsk 34,000 

Tobolsk 18,000 

East  Turkestan. 

Yarkand 120,000 

Kashgar 80,000 

China. 

Peking 1 ,650,000 

Canton 1 ,600,000 

Tientsin 930,000 

Yo-Chow 800,000 

Foo-Chow 630,000 

Nankin 150,000 

Ningpo 260,000 

Shanghai 372,000 


Amoy 88,000 

Hong-Kong     ....  160,000 

Japan. 

Tokio 1,140,000 

Osaka 291,000 

Kioto 230,000 

Yokohama 67,000 

Hindostan. 

Bombay 773,000 

Calcutta 684,000 

Hyderabad 263,000 

Madras 406,000 

Lucknow 261,000 

Patna 170,000 

Benares 300,000 

Delhi 173,000 

Indo-China. 

Bankok 500,000 

Singapore 150,000 

Saigon 100,000 

Hud 50,000 

Mandalay 90,000 

Afghanistan. 

Cabut 60,000 

Kandahar 50,000 

Herat 30,000 

Persia. 

Tabreez 165,000 

Teheran 200,000 

Meshed 60,000 

Ispahan 60,000 

Arabia. 

Mecca 30,000 

Muscat 40,000 

^__ 

MALAYSIA. 

Manila 270,000 

Surabaya 120,000 

Batavia 103,000 

• 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Melbourne 283,000 

Sydney 224,000 

Ballarat 37,000 

Adelaide 38,000 

Hobart  Town  ....    21,000 
Auckland s8,ooo 


HEIGHTS    OF    PRINCIPAL    MOUNTAINS. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 

I.    Northern  Coast  Mountains,  feet. 

Mount  St.  Elias 19,283 

s.    Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range. 

Mount  Whitney 14,887 

Mount  Rainier i4,444 

Mount  Shasta i4,440 

Mount  Tyndall 14.386 

Mount  Dana 13.277 

Mount  Hood 11,225 

3.    Rocky  Mountains. 

Uncompahgre  Peak 14,540 

Mount  Harvard 14,384 

Gray's  Peak i4,34r 

Mount  Lincoln 14,297 

Long's  Peak 14,271 

Pike  s  Peak 14,147 


Mexican  Plateau.  feet. 

Orizaba 17.897 

Popocatepetl 17,784 

Iztaccihuatl 15,700 

CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

Agua 14,494 

Fuego 12,790 

SOUTH   AMERICA. 
Andes. 

Illampu* 24,81 2 

Ulimani* 24,155 

Aconcagua* 23,421 

Tupangati 22,015 

Chimborazo 21 ,424 

Nevada  de  Sorata 21,290 

Nevada  de  Cayambe 19.535 

Antisana 19.137 

Cotopaxi 18,870 


Tunguaragua 
Pichmcha    .    . 


EUROPE. 

Elburz  Con  Asiatic  boundary)     .... 

Blanc  (Alps) 

Rosa  (Alps) 

Matterhom  (Alps) 

Finster-aar-horn  (Alps) 

Jungfrau  (Alps) 

Iseran     

Mulhacen  (Spain) 

Maladetta  (Spain) 

Mount  Etna  (Sicily) 

Mount  Olympus  (Greece) 

ASIA.* 
Everest,  Himalaya  Mountains  (highest  in 

the  world) 

Dapsang,  Karakorum  Mountains    .     .     , 
Kintchinjunga,  Himalaya  Mountains  .    . 


FEET. 

16,424 
15,924 

18,57a 
15.784 
15.223 
14.835 
14,039 
13.718 
13,270 
11,654 
11,426 
10,874 
9j754 


29,002 
28,278 
28,156 


FEET. 

Dhawalagiri,  Himalaya  Mountains     .     .  26,826 

Nanda  Devt,  Himalaya  Mountains      .     .  25,661 

Hindoo  Koosh  Mountains  (highest  peak)  20,000 

Ararat  (Armenia) i7>3oo 

Fusiyama  (Japan) 14,177 

AFRICA. 

Killimaniaro  (Central  Africa)      ....  20,000 

Kenia  ((Central  Africa) 18,000 

Teneriffe  (Canary  Islands) 12,182 

Atlas  Mountains  (highest  peak)      .     .     .  11,400 

Mountains  of  Abyssinia  (highest  peak)    .  10,000 

ISLANDS. 

Mauna  Loa  (Sandwich  Islands)      .    .    .  14,000 

Ophir  (Sumatra) 13.842 

Owen  Stanley  (Papua) 13,205 

Semero  (Java) 12,000 

Egmont  (New  Zealand) 8,840 

Australian  Alps  (highest  peak)  .     .     .     .  7,500 

Kilauea  (Sandwich  Islands) 6,000 


LENGTHS   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   RIVERS    IN   THE   WORLD. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


Missouri,  to  the  sea  (longest   river   in  the 

world) .  4,200 

Missouri,  to  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi,  2,800 

Mississippi  proper 2,800 

Mackenzie 2,300 

St.  Lawrence 2,200 

Nelson  and  Saskatchewan 1,900 

Rio  Grande 1,800 

Yukon 1,600 

Arkansas 1,514 

Ohio  (including  the  Alleghany)    ....  1,275 

Columbia 1,200 

Red  River 1,200 

Colorado 1,100 


MILES. 

Platte 800 

Brazos,  Colorado  of  Texas 650 

SOUTH    AMERICA. 

Amazon 3,600 

Rio  de  la  Plata  (Parana  included)     .    .    .  2,250 

Orinoco 1,500 

St.  Francisco 1.500 

Tocantins  and  Araguay 1,250 

Magadalena 900 

EUROPE. 

Volga 2,000 

Danube 1,800 

Don,  Dnieper ....  1,000 


MILES. 

Rhine 880 

Petchora,  Hbe 737 

Dwina 700 

Vistula 691 

Loire 599 

Tagus 550 

Dniester,  Guadiana 500 

Oder,  Douro,  Rhone,  Po,  Seine     ....  450 

ASIA. 

Yenisei , 3»4oo 

Yang-tse-Kiang 3,320 

Lena,  Obi,  Hoang-Ho 2,700 

Amoor 2,650 

Indus ....  1,850 


MILES. 

Mekong 1,800 

Euphrates i,75*> 

Ganges,  Brahmapootra 1,600 

Irrawaddy 1,200 

Tigris 1,150 

Ural 1,000 

AFRICA. 

Nile 3,89s 

Niger 1,°oq 

Zambesi 1,800 

Congo,  or  Livingstone  (estimated)     .     .     .  1,600 

Senegal,  Orange 1,000 

AUSTRALIA. 

Murray 1,700 


*  These  are  the  results  of  official  surveys.     Aconcagua  is  probably  the  best  determined  point  in  South  America. 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  DIFFICULT  GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES. 


^y"  All  markB  used  to  indicate  pronunciation  are  the  same  as  are  employed  in  Webster's  Dictionary,  last  edition. 
BXPLANATIOK  OP  Mabks.  —  a,  5,  I,  5,  Q,  j?,  long ;  i,  e,  6,  less  prolonged ;  &,  6, 1,  6,  B,  J,  short ;   cSre,  far,  list,  f^H,  wh^t ;  there,  Tgil,  t^rm  ;  pVque,  ffrm  ;  d6ne,  for,  dfl,  wglf ,  fi^bd,  f<5bt ;  ffirl,  rude, 
P9Bh  ;  «,  »,  0,  silent ;  S,  sound  of  long  a  ;  6,  simitar  to  e  in  her ;  u,  tike  the  French  u  ;  ^g,  sound  of  i  in  spirit ;  ^  oj  8  ;  (h  05  sb  j  e,  €h,  as  k  ;  &as  j;  g  aj  t'n  get ;  g  oi  z  ;  ^as  gz\  Q  as  in  Huger,  liQk  ;  tb 
as  in  thine  ;  I,  like  lU  in  million  )  n,  tike  ni  in  minion  \  i,  luar/y  like  s;  D,  similar  to  th  tn  this  ;  a,  soutui  of  German  ch  ;  h,  strongly  aspirated  ;  k,  sound  of  German  cb  ;  m,  French  nasal  sound;  r,  /titc 
IT  in  tenor 


Aaehen,  ft^Ken. 
Abaco,  a'ba-ko. 
Abbitlbe,  ab-be-tib'bee. 
Abeokuta,  a-be-o-kij'ta. 
Ab'er-cleeii'. 
Abomcy,  ab'o-ma', 
Aboukir,  ii-boo-keer'. 
AbranteM,  U-brau'tej. 
Acapulco,  ii-ka-pool'ko. 
Acaral,  ii-ca-ra't 
Ach-een'. 

Aconcagua,  arkon-ka'gwa. 
Acre,  a'ker,  or  a'ker. 
Aden.a'den;  ^rai.  ;»r(m.  a'den. 
Adlge,a'de-je  ;  /(.pr<'n.(i'de-ji. 
Ad'i-roiiMack. 
Adrianopla,  ad'rt-an-o'p!. 
Adri-at'ic. 
^gean  (Sea),  e-jee'an. 
Afghanistan,  iif-gan'is-tan'. 
Agades,  ag'a-des'. 
Agra,  a'gra. 
Agullar,  a-ge-laa'. 
Agulhatt,  a-gool'y^s. 
Aisne,  an,  or  fin. 
Aix-la-Cliapelle,  aks-la- 

shil'-pel'. 
Ajacclo,  a-yiit'cho. 
Ak'ron. 
Alamo,  H'la-mo. 
Albans,  jil'banj. 
Arbe-marle  (Eug-)* 
Al'be-marle'(U.  S-). 
Albuquerciue,  al-boo-kSa'kA, 

or  ai'boo-kerk. 
Alcantara,  al-kanHa-ra. 
Alen^on,  a-len'sou  ;  Fr.  pron. 

^a'loH'soa'.  ~" 

A-lep'po. 

Aleutian,  a-lu'shT-an. 
Algarve,  aI-gaR'T&. 
Al-glerg'. 

AlicMiite,  a-le-kau't5. 
Alleghany,  SI-le-ga'uT. 

Allrghf  ny,  ftl-le  ga'nT. 

Alller,  al-Ie-a'. 

Almaden,  al-oia-Den'. 

Almeida,  ill-m;V&-dih. 

Alsace,  al'sUss'. 

Altai,  al-tl'. 

Altamaha,  awVta-ma-haw'. 

Alton,  {il'ton. 

Ank-boy'. 

Am-boy^na- 

Amiens,  ami-enz ;    Fr.  pron 
a'me'S.N'. 

Amite,  a-meet'. 

Am'os-kSag'. 

A-nftm''. 

An' da- man'. 

Andorra,  In-doa'aa. 

An'do-ver. 

An'dr4»s-cog'p:ln. 

Anglesey,  or  Anglesea,  ang' 
gl-se. 

An-go'la. 

Angostura,  fin-gos-too'r&. 

Angouldme,  5N'goo'I&m'. 

An-ko'ber. 

Antlgiia,  au-te'ga. 

Antilles,  an-teel',  or  OM'teel'. 

Apache,  a-pa^ch&. 

Ap'en-niueg. 

Ap'pa-iii'chl-an. 

Ap'pa-lach'i-co'la. 

Ap'po-niat'toX. 

Araguay,  ii-ra-gwl'. 

Ar'al. 

Archangel,  ark-an'jSl 

Arequipa,  a-r&-kee^pa. 


Ardennes,  ar-d6n'. 
Ar'gen-tlne. 

Argyle,  ar-gil'. 

Arica,  ii-re^ka. 

Arispe,  a-res'pa, 

Ar-kan'sas. 

Armagh,  ur-ma'. 

A-roos'tc>bk. 

Arpliio,  ar-pe'no, 

Ar'ra"). 

Artols,  aa'twa'. 

A-shan'tee,  or  Ashman-tee'. 

Ash'ta-bu'la- 

A(«ia,   a'shi-a,  ofien    improperly 

pronounced  a'zhi-a. 
As'pin  Avail. 
As-SHm'. 
As  slii'ni-boln^. 
Asuncion,  a-sijn'se-Sn. 
Atacama,  a-ta-ca^ma. 
Atbara,  at-ba'r^. 
Atchafalaya,  atch-af-a-lKa. 
Aube,  ob. 
Augs'burg. 
Augustine,  St-,  sent-aw'gujs- 

tceu'. 
Au  Sable,  6-sa'bl. 
Auvurgne,  0-v2m,  or  iKvSBu'. 
Auxerre,  o-sGr'. 
Avignon,  ii'ven'yoN' 
Avon,  a'?on. 
Az'of. 
Azores,  a-zorz',  or  a-zo'rez. 


B. 


Bab'el-man'deb. 

Badajos,  bad-a-hos^ 

Baden,  ba'den,  or  bad'en. 

Bagdjtd,  bag-dad',  or  bag'dad. 

Bii-hH'ma:t* 

Bah  la,  bii-e-'a. 

Baikal,  bi'kal'. 

Balreuth,  bl'ruth  ;    Ger,  pron. 

bi'roit. 
Balaton,  bli'law-ton. 
Bal'e-ftr'ic. 
Balize,  bu-Ieez^ 
Balkan,  bal-kan'. 
Bai|'gdr([J.  S.}. 
Bangkok'. 

Barbadoeg,  bar-ba'doz. 
Bar-ce-lo'na,  or  baB-th^-io'na. 
Barnaul,  baa-nowl'. 
Bar'iie-gat'. 
Barn'!«ta-ble. 
Basle,  bal. 
Bas'Mo-rah. 
Bft-tang'. 
Baton  Konge,  bat'un  roozh. 

Bayoniie,  ba'yon'. 

Bayou  la  Fourche,  bi'oo  la 
fjjrsh. 

Beaufort  (British  Dominions], 
bo'furt. 

Beaufort  (S.  C),  bQ'furt, 

Belirlng,  beer'ing. 

Bi-l-fa8t'(  Ireland). 

Belfast  (Maine). 

Bellefontaine  (France),  bel'- 
foN'tAn'. 

Bellefnntaine    (U.   S.),  bSl- 
fftn'ten. 

Belle  Isle,  or  Bell  isle  ,~hel-n^ 

Beloochistan,  bel-oo^chis- 
tan'. 

Benares,  ben-'i'rfis. 

Bengal,  ben-gawl'. 

Ben-gji'zii. 

Benguela,  ben-ga'l&. 

Benin,  beu-e«n'. 


BSr'lln  ;   Ger.  pron.  bSR-Ieen^ 

Ber-mu'da^. 

B§r-uard',  Saint. 

Berwick,  ( Kug.),  bfir'rik. 

B€r'wlck(U.  tj.). 

Besauf  on,  b'z-6.\'s6N'. 

Bexar  ;  Up.  pron.  b4-HaE' ;  oft- 
en pron.  by  Vie  TexanSy  beh- 
har',  or  bar. 

Blafra,  bV-af'ra. 

Biloxi,  be-loks'I. 

Bingliamtoii,  bing^um-tun. 

Birniiiighain,  btr^ming-um. 

Blanc  (Slontj,  vam  blON,  or 
Mount  Ulayc. 

Blois,  bloi,  prtferably  blwa. 

Bogota,  bo-go-t^. 

Bois6,  bwa-za'. 

Bokhara,  bo-K3.'r3. 

Bologna,  bo-lou'yE. 

Bom-l>ay^ 

Boiiln,  bo-nun'. 

Bordeaux,  boa'do'. 

Borgne,  born. 

Bos'po  rus. 

Boulogne,  boo-I(Jn' ;  Fr.  pron. 
boo'lon. 

Bowdoin,  bo^den. 

Krah'ma-poot'ra. 

Bra-zll' ;  Port.  pron.  bra-zeel  '. 

Brazos,  bra^zos,  or  bra'soss. 

Brem'en,  or  bra'men  (Burope). 

Breslau,  bres'law,  or  brSs'lou. 

Breton  (Oape),  brit'Qn. 

Brindisi,  brin'de-see. 

Br^i'geg  ;  Fr.  pron.  brlizh. 

Bu'cha-rest'. 

Bu'da ;  Hang,  pron,  boo'dfth'  . 

Buenos  Ayres,  bo'nus  &'riz  \ 
Sp.  pron.  bwa'nosa  i'rfis. 

5w»  _ 

B^r'gos. 
Bur'gun-dy. 
Bushire^  boo-sheer'. 
Butte,  but. 


caveB. 

Ca-booK 

Caen,  kdn. 

Cagllari,  kfil'yii-re. 

Caicos,  ki'kod. 

Cai'ro  (Kgypt). 

Cal'ro{U.  S.). 

Calais,  kiil'iss  ;  Fr.  pron.  ka'lu' 

Calcasieu,  kal^ka-shy,  or  kQl' 

ka-fihi). 
Caldera,  kill-d&'rS. 
Calloa,  kal-la'o,  or  kll-yS^o. 
Calvi,  kai'Te. 
Canandaigua,  kau^ari-da'- 

gwa. 
Can-ftv'e-ral. 
Can-ton'  (China). 
Cape  Girardeau,  je-rar-do'. 
Ca-rac'as. 

CanlenHS,  kar'da'naa. 
Cftr'ib-be'an. 
Cftr'Ib-bee' 
Carlsruhe,  carts'roo. 
Ca-r5n'de-16t. 
Cartag*-na,  kar'ta-je'na. 
Cftsh-inere'. 

CasNlquiari.  ka-se-ke-a'ree. 
Casttne.  kas-tcen'. 
Ca-taw'ba. 
Catoche,  ka-to'cha. 
Cat  ta-rau'gus. 
Cftt'tegftt. 
Cau'ca-siis. 
Cayembe,  ki-Km'bft. 


Cayenne,  kl-en'. 
Cayman,  kl-man'. 
Cavuga,  ki-yoo'ga. 
Celebes,  sei'e-biz. 
^en'is,  or  se'ne'. 
Cette,  set. 
Cettlgne,  chet-ti'B'A. 
Ceuta,  su'ta. 
Cevennes,  p&-ven'. 
Ceylon,  see'lgn,  or  sT-lon'. 
Chagres,  cha'grfie. 
Chaleur,  eha-loor'. 
Ch&mouny,  sha'moo'ne\ 
Chandeleur,  fhan-de-lour'. 
Chapala,  sha-pU'la. 
Chapultepec,  cha-pool-t&- 

pek'. 
Chftr'i-ton. 
Chat^ta-hoo'che. 
ChJit-ta-noo'ga. 
Chaudi6re,  Kho-d5-6r'. 

Chautauqua,  ^tia-taw/kwa. 

Chelsea,  chol'se. 

Chenango,  she-nSng'gO. 

Chemnitz,  Keni'nitP. 

Chemung,  she-mGng'. 

Che-raw'- 

Cheiburg,  sher'burg,  or  shSE^- 
booR'. 

Che  sun'cook. 

Cheviot,  chiv'e-ut. 

Cheyenne,  phi-fin'. 

Chicago,  fhe-kaw'go. 

Chihuahua,  che-wa'wii. 

Chill,  chil'le  ;  Sp.  Chile,  cheo'- 
lA. 

Chll'II-coth'e. 

Chimborazo,  chim'bo-Til'EO. 

Chin'cha. 

Chowan,  ch5-wan'. 

Chuquisaca,  chu-kS-sI'kS. 

Cienfuegos,  fe-^n'fwa'gos. 

Clmaron,  ec-ma-ron'. 

Cobija,  ko-bee'na. 

Coblentz,  kob'lcnts. 

Cochal>anil>a,  ko-cb5-bam'bii. 

Co'chin  China. 

Cohahuila,  ko-a-wee'la. 

Cohoes,  ko-hoz'. 

Co-im'brt,  or  ko-eem'bra. 

Colima,  ko-lee'ma. 

Cologne,  ko-lon'. 

Colorado,  kol'o-rah'do. 

ComayHgua,  ko-mI-&'gwii. 

Com'o-rin. 

Conecocheague,  kon'e-ko- 
cheeg'. 

Conecuh,  ko-nee^a. 

Congo,  cong'go,  f-r  Livingstone. 

Connaught,  kon'nawt. 

Co'i»eii-ha'gen. 

Copiapo,  ko-p5-a-p<V. 

Coqulmbo,  ko-kSm'bo. 

Cor'do-va. 

Corea,  ko-rf'a. 

Corrientes,  koR-Re-Sn'tSs. 

Costa  Klca,  kfie'targ'ki. 

CotopHxi,  ko'to-pakfl'e. 

Cdv'ing-ton. 

Cracow,  kra'ko. 
iCrl-me'a. 
]Croix(St.),  kroi. 

CuencH,  kwen'ka. 

Cuinana,  k]]-ma-na'. 

Curapoa,  ku'ra-so'. 

Cuyahoga,  kl'a-bo'ga. 

Cuzco,  koos'ko. 


D. 
Dahlonega,  da-lOn'S-ga. 


Dahomey,  dah-bo'mA'. 
I>al  Nippon'. 

I>arfur,  dar'foor'. 
Darien,  da-re-^n'. 
De-ca'tur. 
Del'a-go'a. 

Delhi  (Uindostan),  del'lee. 
Delhi  (U.  S.),  del'hl. 
Demerara,  dem'e-ra'ra. 
Des  Moines,  de-moin'. 
Dieppe,  dyep,  or  de-ep'. 
Dijon,  de'zboN'. 
Dnieper,  nec'per. 
Dniester,  nees'ter. 
Dominica,  dnm'e-nee'ka. 
Dongola,  dong'go-la. 
Dordogne,  dCr-dun'. 
Do' vre-fi-eld'. 
Drave. 

Drontlieim,  dront'im. 
Dubuque,  du-biik'. 
Duluth,  du-IUth'. 
Dumfries,  dum-freess'. 
Dun-dee'. 
Du-ned'ln. 
Duquesne,  du-kan'. 
Dus'sel-dorf ;   Ger.  Diissel- 

dorf ,  diis'sel-doRf'. 
DwI'na. 


E. 

£au  Claire,  5  clai^^ 
Kcuadftr,  ek-wa-doR' 
Edinburgh,  ed'in-bur-ruh. 
Ed'is-to. 

£gripo,  n-gre'po. 
Eiseiia*  h,  T'zen-ak. 
£lbe,  elb  ;   Ger.  pron.  el'beb. 
ElbUTz,  el-b]irz'. 
El  Obeid,  el  B-ba'gd. 
Enara,  a^na'rS. 
Erfurt,  er'fiirt. 
Erlaiig*n,  ^B'lang-en. 
Erzeroum,  erz-roum'. 
Erzvebirte,  eats'ga-b^'E'ga. 
£spinh»^o,  Sp-pfn-yk'so. 
1  ^sequibo,  5s-se-ke'bo. 
EssHiigen,  ^f^u'ling-gn. 
Etlenne,  Saint,  s^Nt  et'e-en' 
Et'o-wah. 
Eiifaula,  ii-f^'la. 
Eylau,  i'lou. 


F. 

Faroe,  fa'ro. 
Fauquier,  faw-keer'. 
Fayal,  fi-awl', 
Fernandina,  fer-nSn-dS'nii. 
Ferrara,  fea-Ra'rii. 
FeTrol,  f6R-R61'. 
Fezzan,  ffiz'zim'. 
Flnisterre,  fin-is-tCr'. 
Flume,  fe-(Jl)'ma. 
Fond  d^i  Eftc. 
For-mo^sa. 
Freiburg,  fri'btirg. 
Frio,  free'o. 
Fr<'b'lsh-er. 
FO'cli. 

Funchal^  foon'shal'. 
Fnnen,  fu'nen. 
Fusiyama,  fu-sT-jii'ml. 


Gairdner,  gird'ner. 
Galapagos,  gal'a-pa'gus. 


iGalatz,  giliitB. 
I  Ga-le'na. 
GalUnas,  gal-e'nas. 
Gal'ves-ton. 
Galvray,  gawl'wa. 
Garonne,  git-ron'. 
Gaspe,  gas'pi'. 
G*n'o-a. 
Ghauts,  gawts. 
Ghent,  gent ;  Fr.  Oand,  gfiv. 
Olessen,  geeis'sen. 
Gila,  He'la. 
Gironde,  je-rond' ;   F^.  pron. 

zhe'rONd'. 
Gloucester,  glos'ter. 
Gobi,  go'be. 
Godavery,  go-da'Ter-I. 
Goes,  udoB. 
Goiha,  go'ta. 
Gdttingen,  get'ting-en,  or 

got'tiiig-en. 
Granada,  gra-n&'di. 
Greenwith,  grin'y. 
Grigua,  grlg'ua. 
Guadalajara,  orGuadalazaxa, 

gwii-Dii-la-ua'ra. 
GuaHaloupe,  g&w'da-loop',  or 

ga'dii-loop'. 
Guadalquivir,  gaw'dal- 

kwiv'tT. 
Guadiana,  gaw'de-fi'na,  or 

gwa'De-a'iiJi. 
Guanalianl.  gwa-na-ha'uee. 
GuHnajuato,  oi  Guana- 
Gxuato,  gwH-na-Hwa''to. 
Guapore,  gwa-po'ra. 
Guardafui,  gwar'da-fwee'   or 

giir'da-fwe'. 
Guatemala,  gaw'te-mala.   or 

pi\a-t*--nia']a. 
Guayanta,  gwT-S'ma. 
Guayaquil,  gwT-a-keel'. 
Gna;i  mas,  gwT'mas. 
Guernsey,  gCm'ze. 
Tulxna,  ge-a'na. 
Guinea,  gin'e. 
Guyandott,  gl-an-dof . 


Hague,  bSg. 
Hainan,  hi-nan'. 
HakodadI,  hii-ko-dii'dee. 
Halle,  hal'leh. 
H  an'o-  ver. 
Bauran,  hCw-rSn'. 
Haverhill  (Eng.),  bav'er-il. 
Haverhill  (Vas^g.),  ha'Ter-Il. 
Havre  de   Grace,  haT'er  de 

graw. 
Hawaii,  hX-wT'ee. 
Hayti,  hn'ti. 
Hebrides,  heVrl-dez. 
Hele'nn,  St. 
Helena  (Ark.),  hei'e-na. 
Hel'i-go-land. 
Hel'sing  fors', 
Heulo  pen. 
Hen-ri'ko. 
Herat,  her-St'. 
Herzegovina,  hfirfa^-go- 

Tce'na. 
Hessf>  Cas'sel. 
Hlm-a-la'ya. 
Hlndo-fitan'. 
Ho-ang'ho,  pronounced  abnost 

wharg'ho'. 
HoHbo-ken. 
Holstein,  hol'stin. 
Honduras,  hon-doo'ras. 
Honolulu,  ho-Do-loo'loo 


ii8 


PRONUNCIATION   OF  DIFFICULT   GEOGRAPHICAL  NAMES. 


Hoaston,  h&s'tun. 
Hu6,  boo-&'. 
Huelva,  wel'vi. 
Huesca,  wee'ka. 

Hyderabad,  h!''deT-a'bad'. 

I. 

IberTille,  i'ber-Til. 

Is^uape,  e-gwS'pa.    

Iliainpu,  eel-yam'poo. 
Ulim  tni,  eel-ya-ma'nee. 
Ilmen,  U-men^ 
Ina^ua,  c-na''gwa. 
Indies,  iu'diz. 
Innsbruck,  Tn;s^prdbk. 
Interlacben,  iu'cer-lac'en. 
I'o-wa 

Iquique,  e-ke'ka. 
Iger,  ee'zer. 

Itacoluml,  e-ta-co-lQ-me'. 
Ith^a-ca. 
I  u'ka. 
Iztaccibaate,  es-tak-se- 

hwat-i'. 

J. 

Jaen,  ha-en'. 

Jalapa,  aa-la^pil. 

Jalisco,  or  Xalisco,  Ha-lees'- 

ko. 
Jan  Mayen,  yan  mren. 
Jassy,  yas'se. 
Jen^a  ;   Her.  pron.  ya'na. 
Juan  Fer-nan'd£z 
Ju'^aii,  Saint ;  Sp.  San  Juan, 

san  uwaa. 
Jougfrau,  ydbng^frow. 


Ka^esliua,  k^-ga-sg^ma. 
Kiil  auiH-zoo'. 
Kamt-cliat'lca. 
Kaiiawba,  ka-naw'wa. 
Kan-da -bar'. 
Kaukakee,  kaQk'a-kee'. 
Kano,  kii-no'. 

Karakorum,  ka-ra  kd'ram. 
Karlskrona,  karls-krub'na. 
Ka-tab'din. 
Kearuey,  kaiyni. 
Kearsarge,  ker'sarj'. 
Kennebec,  k6n-nu-bek'. 
Kenoslia,  keQ-5^(jha. 
Ke'o-kuk'. 
Kersuelen,  kerf' e-len. 
Khiva,  Kee'va. 
Kiakhta,  ke-aK'ta. 
Kief,  ke-ef,  or  KT-ev'. 
Kif  1,  keel. 
Kilimanjaro,  kTI-e-man- 

ji-ro'. 
Ktolen,  ki'o-len. 
Kioto,  ki-o'to. 
Kit'ta  tln'ny. 
Klamath,  klam'at. 
Kolin,  ko-ieea'.       ^ 
Koni^sbers,  ken'igB-berg. 
Kordofan,  kor-do-filn'. 
Kuenlun,  kweu-lobn'. 
Kuka,  kub'ka. 
KurUe,  k(5b/rll. 


Lab'ra-dor.' 
Lad'o-ga. 

La-drones' ;  Sp.  pron.  liD-ny 

n&3. 
Lafayette,  laf-ft-et'. 
La  Fourche,  la  foorsh. 
Lago  Ittaggiore,  la'go-mad- 

jo'r&. 
La  Guayra,  la  gwT'ra. 
Lancaster,  lilng'kas-ter. 
Languedoc,  15N'geh-dok'. 
Laon,  la'oN'. 
Laredo,  la-ra'd5. 
La  Rochelle,  la  ro-shSI'. 
Latakia,  la'ta-kee'a. 
liSusanne,  lO'zan'. 


Lesnano,  16n-jil'no. 

Leicester,  ies'ter. 

Leinster,  lin'ster. 

Leipsic,  lip'sik. 

Leiih,  ieetn. 

Leum  in  ster  (U.  S.). 

Leominster  (ting.),  lem'ster. 

L«'on ;  Sp.  pron.  ]&-on'. 

Le  Sufur,  soor. 

Leyden,  li'den,  or  laMen. 

Li^ge,  leej  :  Fr.  pron.  le-&zli'. 

Lisle,  leel. 

Lima  ( Heru),  lee'ma. 

Lima  I U-  8.)  li'ma, 

Liiaoges,  le'mozh'. 

Lipari,  lip'a-re,  or  lee'pa-ree. 

Llanos,  lya'uos. 

Lodi  (Italy),  lo'dee. 

Lodi(U.  S.),  lo/dl. 

Lo-fo'den. 

Loire,  Iwaa. 

Lumoud  (Loch),  lo&  lo'mund. 

Los  A  ngeles,  loce  fin' jSl-^. 

Louisville,  loo'is-vil. 

Luc'ca ;  It.  pron.  look'ka. 

Lupata,  lu-pa'tS. 

Luzon,  loo-zon'. 

L£-c5m'ing. 

Ly'ons  ;  b'r.  Lyon,  le'oN', 

M. 

Maas,  m!i8. 

Macao,  ma-ca'o,  or  ma-koW. 

Macliias,  ma-chi'as. 

Mack'i-na>v. 

Madeira,  ma-dee'ra;  Port. 

pron.  ma-da'e-ra. 
M  ad-rag'. 
Mad-rid'. 
Mad'rid(lJ.  S.). 
Magdalii,  mag'da-la. 
Magellan,  ma-jel'lan. 
Makoc|ueta,  ma-ko'ke-ta. 
Mal'abar'. 
Mal'a-ga,  or  ma'la-ga. 
Malta,  uiiiwl'ta. 
Mandalay,  maa-dS.'le. 
Manislee,  ma-nls'tg. 
Mauitutia,  man-I-to-ba'. 
Maiiitouwoc,  man'e-too-wok' 
Manzaiiillo,  maa-sa-neel'yo. 
>laracaybo,  ma-ra-kl'bo. 
Maranba  m,  mar'a-uam'. 
Mar'mo-ra. 
Marquesas,  max-ka'sas 
Marquette,  mar-kef. 
Marseilles,  mar-salz'. 
Martinique,  mar'tl-neeK'. 
Mas'sil-15n. 
Ma-tan'' zas. 
Mat'a-pan'. 
Maucb-Chunk,  mawk* 

chilnk'. 
Maz'at-lan'. 
MecbUii,  mek'lia. 
Medina  (Arabia),  me-dee'na. 
Medina  (U.  S.),  me-dt'na. 
Me-her'rin. 
Meiningeii,  mt'ning-ea. 
Menai,  tnen'i,  or  men'a  (Strait). 
Mendocino,  m6n-do-8ee'no. 
Mercede,  iner-s:id'. 
Mersev,  mSr'zT. 
Merthyr  Tydvil,  mgr'ther 

tid'vil. 
Messina,  mSs-Bee'na. 
Miami,  ml-a'ml. 
MUan,  mll'au  (Italy);  ml-lSn 

(U.S.). 
Miquelon,  mik-e-lon'. 
MIrainachi,  mlr'a-ma-shee'. 
Mocl'e-na,  or  mod'&-na. 
Mohave,  mo-hSv'. 
Mo-nad'nock. 
Mo-non'ga-hela. 
Mont  Blanc,  moN  bl5N,  or 

Mount   UlaQc. 
Mont  Cenis,  moic  seh-ne',  or 

seh-ness'. 
Mon'te-vid'e-o,  or  nion-t&- 

vee'di'O. 
Mont-pe'li-er. 
Mo-re'a. 
Mos'cow ;  Buss.  Moskwa, 

moBk-^H'. 


Mozambique,  mo-zam-beek'. 
Munich,  mu'ntk. 
Musoaiine,  mua'ka-teen'. 
Muskingum,  mu^kiug'gum. 
Mysore,  mi-sor'. 


N, 

Nan-kin'. 

Mantes,  nants  ;  Ft.  pron.  nONt< 

Nan-tuck'et. 

Natal,  ua-tal'. 

Natch'i-tocb'es ;  sometimes 

proHoanceU  nak-e-tiwh'. 
Neufchatel,  &mli'a'tel'. 
Ne' vis  (lien). 
Newfoundland,  nu'fiind- 

land'. 
Nevir  Or'le  ang. 
Ngami,  'uga'mee. 
Niagara,  ui-ag'a-ra :  .sometimes 

P'onounreii  ni-ag'a-ra. 
Nicaragua,  uik'2-ra'gwa. 
Nice,  uees. 
Niger,  ni'jer. 
Nijue  Novgorod,  nlzh'nfi 

nOv'gyrod. 
Nip'is  sins'. 
Nismes,  neem. 
Norwich  ( Eng.),  nor'rij. 
Norivicb  (U.  S.),  nor'rich,  or 

noi^wich. 
Nov'go-rod'. 
Nueces,  nwa'sfis. 
Nyaiiza,  nj-an'za. 
Nyassa,  n&-Ss'a. 


O. 

Oahn,  wah'hoo. 

Oaxaca,  wiUaa'ka. 

Obi,  o'be. 

Ock'lo-ko'nee. 

O-co'nee. 

Odense,  o'den-seh. 

Ogeechee,  o-gee'chee. 

Oise,  oiz  ;   Ft.  pron.  waz. 

Okeechobee,  o-ke-cho'bs. 

Okefliiokee,  u-ke-£In-o'ke. 

Okhotsk,  o-Kotsk'. 

Olean,  o-le-ftn'. 

OI6ron,  o-li'roN'. 

Omaha^  o'ma-haw'. 

Oman,  o-man'. 

O-ne'ga. 

Oneida,  o-nT'da. 

Onondaga,  on'un-daw'ga. 

Ou'to-nag'ou. 

O-pt'ri-ka. 

Op'e-lo\t'8as. 

Orizaba',  o-re-sa'bi. 

Or'te-gal. 

O'sage'. 

Ouachita,  wosh^-ta. 

Onde,  owd. 

O-zark'. 


Pad'n-a. 

Faduca,  pa-dji'ka. 

Panama,  pSn'a-ma'. 

Fapua,  pap'oo-a,  or  pa'poo  ii. 

Para,  pU-ra'. 

Paraguay,  pa-ra-gwa',  or  pa- 

rS-gwT'. 
Far'a-marlbo. 
Parana,  pa-ra-na'. 
Parime,  par-Y'mA. 
Farina,  pa-re-na'. 
Fas-sa'lc. 
Fassaro,  pas'sa-ro. 
Pass  Christian,  p&ss  kris'te- 

an'. 
Pa-tras'. 
Pavia,  pa-vee'X. 
Pecos,  pa'kos. 
Feipus,  pa'e-poos. 
Pembina,  p6in'be-iia. 
Fernambuco,  pea-nam-boo'- 

ko. 
Pesth,  pest. 
Fhll'ip-pine. 
Piacenza,  pe-a-chen'si. 


Pierre  (Saint),  a6nt  peer. 
Piqua,  pik'wa. 
f  iga,  pee'ia. 
Pis-cat' a-qua. 
Flaquemlne,  plak'men'. 
Plata  ( tiiQ  de  la),  re'o  d&  la' 

pla'ta. 
Po'co-tal'i-€M>. 
Pondicherry,  pon'de-shSr'- 

ree. 
Foikt'char-train'. 
Fopayan,  po-pi-an',  or  po-pa- 

yau'. 
Po- po- cafe -pet  1'. 
For t-au- Prince,  port  o- 

prluss. 

Fort  Mahon,  ma-hon'. 
Forto  Kicu,  por'to  ree'ko. 
Portsmouth,  po^t:^'muth. 
Fotosi,  po-to-tiee',  or  po-to'see. 
Foughkeepsie,  po-kip'sl. 
Prague,  prag. 
Prairie  du  Chlen,  prii'r!  du 

sheeu. 

Pregque  Isle,  presk  eel. 
Puebla,  pweb'la. 
Pyrenees,  plr'e-nez. 


Queretaro,  ki-ra/ta-ro. 
Quesada,  k&-sa'Da. 
Quiche,  kee'ch&. 
Quiloa,  kee'lo-a. 
Quin'ebaiig'. 
Quito,  ke'e'to. 


Racine,  ras-seen'. 
Ragu«a,  ra-goo'sa. 
Rah  way,  raw'wa. 
Raleigli,  raw'l!. 
Rangoon,  rang-goon'. 
Rap'id-an'. 
Rarilan,  rilr'it-un. 
Reading,  red'ing. 
Recife,  ri^-m'i^. 
Reggio,  r5d'jo. 
Rensselaer,  ren'se-Ier. 
Rey'ki-a-vTk. 
Rheims,  reemz ;  Fr.  pron. 

rSiNz. 
Blad,  rV-ad'. 
Bichelieu,  re'sbe-loo'. 
Rideau,  re/do'. 
Riesengebirge,  ree'zen-ga- 

befeRG'eh. 
Ri'ga,  or  ree'ga. 
Rioltamba,  ree-o-bam'ba. 
Rio  Colorado,  ree'o  ko-lo-ra'- 

do. 
Rio  del  Norte,  rT'o  del  nort ; 

Sp.  pron.  ree'o  del  noR'ti, 
Rio    Grande      (Texas),     ri'o 

gr;lDd. 
BioGrande  (3.  A.),  re'o-gran'- 

da. 
Rio  Janeiro,  rT'o  ja-nee'ro,  or 

ree'o  ja-na'ro. 
Rivoli,  riv'o-le,  or  ree'vo-le. 
Ro'a-noke'. 

Rouen, roo'en  ;  Fr.pron.  rwOx. 
KUgen,  rii'gen. 
Russia,  rQ^hl-a. 
Rysvrick,  riz'wik. 


8. 

Sabine,  sa-been'. 
Saco,  saw'ko. 
Sag-hal'i-en. 
Saguenay,  sag'eh-na'. 
Sahara,  sa-hU'ra. 
Said,  sa-eed'. 
Saigon,  sT'gon'. 
Sal'a-mo-nle'. 
Salford,    sawl'furd,    or 

furd. 
Salonica,  sal-o-ne'ka. 
Saltillo,  sal-teel'yo. 
Saluda,  sa-!oo'da. 
Salvador,  sal-Ta-doR'. 
San  Diego,  san  de*a'go. 


Sangamon,  sang'ga-mon. 
San  Joaquin,  Ban  hwakeen'. 
Saik  Joge,  sau  uo-8&'. 
San  Juan;  ^p.  pron.  san  boo- 

i',  or  uwin. 
Santa  Cruz,  san'ta  kroos. 
San^'ta  F6 ;    Sp.  pron.  san'tS, 

i&. 
Sautarem,  san-ta-r^N;  almost 

sau-ta-reng', 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  sJin-te-a'- 

go  de  ku'ba,  or  dli  koo'ba. 
Sadne,  son. 
Sag-katch'a-wan'. 
Sault  (tit.  Mi'ry)',*  soo. 
SchafThausen,  shaf-how'zen. 
Sclieltit,  iskeit. 
Sc'henectady,  ske-nek'ta-dy. 
Schoharie,  sko-har'ree. 
Schuyler,  ski'ler. 
SchuyllUU,  skool'kil. 
Seine,  «ui. 
Senegal,  sen'e-^awl'. 
Seuiiaar,  sen'nSr. 
Seville,  sev'il,  or  se-Til'. 
Seychelles,  si'shel'. 
Shanuhalj  phang'hT'. 
Shawanguiik  shong'gum. 
She-boygan. 
Shen'an-do'ah. 
Sierra  Madre,  se-eR'na  maD'- 

rft. 
Sierra  Nevada,  se-eE'Ra  ni- 
Tii'Da. 

Slm'plon  [  Fr.  pron.  sas'ploK'. 

Sinai,  si'na,  or  si'n&ri. 

Singapore,  6iDg'ga-por^ 

Sioux,  soo. 

Sigal,  se-sal'. 

Skag'er  Rack. 

Skaneateleg,  skan'e  atles. 

Sofala,  so-fii'la,  or  so'fa-la. 

Soiggong,  swas'sOif'. 

Somme,  som. 

So-no'rii. 

Sorata,  so-rA'ta. 

Stettin,  Btet-teen'. 

SteubenviUe,  stu'ben-Tll. 

Stromboli,  strom'bo-lee. 

Sucre,  soo'krft. 

Suez,  poo-ez'. 

Sumatra,  soo-ma'tr^ 

Surinam,  f;oo-ii-nam'. 

Su-wa'nee- 

Sipvang^-a,  swon'se. 

Szegedin,  seg'ed'in'. 


Tahiti,  ta-bi'te. 
Tahlequah,  tS'le-kwS. 
Tamaqua,  ta-maw'kwa. 
Tamatave,  tam'a-tave. 
Tamaulipag,  ta-mou-lee'pis. 
Tampico,  tam-pee'ko. 
Taiianarivo,  ta-na-na-re-Too'. 
Tanganyika,  tan-gan-y'i'ka. 
Tangier,  tan-jeer'. 
Taog,  ta'us  ;  almost  towss. 
Tapajos,  ta-pa'zhos,  or  ta-pa'- 

hu8. 
Taunton  (Eng.),  tawn'ton. 
Taunton  (Mass.),  tan'ton. 
Teche,  t&ah. 
Teheran,  teh-h'ran. 
Tehuantepec,  tfl-w3.n-t4-pek'. 
Ten-a«*'ser-im. 
Teneriffe,  ten'er-if. 
Terre-Haute,  ter'reh-li5t. 
Thames,  tfiqiz. 
Thibodeaux,  tib'o-do'. 
Thiliet,  tib'et,  or  tT-bet'. 
Tierra  del   Fuego,   te-SE'Rii 

d51  fwa'go. 
Tifiis,  tif-lees'. 
TIm-biic'too. 
Titicaca,  tit  e-ka'ka. 
Tivoli,  tiv'o-le,  or  tee'vo-lee. 
Tokantins,  to-kan-teens'. 
Tokio,  to'kT-o. 
Tonquln,  ton-keen'. 
To-pe'ka. 
Toulon,  too'lSs'. 
Toulouse,  too'looz'. 
Tours,  tooa. 


Traf 'al-gar',  or  Tr^-f  &l'gar. 

Trieste,  tre-fisf . 

Trinidad'. 

TruxiUo,  or  Trujlllo,   troo- 

Heel'>o. 
Tucson,  tH-son'. 
Tuiare,  too-ia'ree. 
Tu'rin,  or  tu-rln'. 
Tyr'oi  ;   Ger.  pron.  te-rol 


U. 

Ucavali,  oo-kl-a'Iee. 

Ujiji,  i>-j 'ji. 

Ulm  :  Ger.  pron.  <Jblm 

Um-ba'gog. 

Upernavlk,  oo-p^R'na-vik. 

I'p'sai. 

Uruguay,   u'roo-gwa',    or  oo- 

roo-gwi'. 
Utrecht,  u'tr6kt. 


Valdai,  Tai'dl. 

Val'Ia  do-lid';  5p.  pron.  val- 

ya-Do-lecD^. 
Vallejo,  Tai-ya'Ho. 
A'alparai^o,  val-pa-ri'so. 
Tarennes,  Ta'ren'. 
Venezuela,  Ten'e-zweela. 
Vera  Cruz,  va'ra-kroos. 
Verde,  verd. 
Vergennes,  ver-jenz'. 
Versailles,  veR-saiz';  Fr.pron. 

TeR'siil',  or  T6R-say''. 
Vienna,  ve-en'na. 
Vincennes,     Tm-66na' ;      Fr 

pron.  viis'fcSn'. 
Voggeg,  Tozh. 


W. 

Wachugett,  wa-chu'set. 
Wxhsatch,  wa-sSch'. 
Warwick  (Kng.),  wor'rik. 
WarAvlck  (U.  S.),  wor'wik,  or 

wov'rik. 
Washila,  w6sh'I-taw. 
\V}^u-ke'gan. 
Wener,  wa'ner. 
We'ger  :    Gfr.  pron.  \5'a'zer, 
Wieliczka,  we-litch'kS. 
TVilkes^barre  wtlks'bar-rl. 
"WillametJ:e,  wil-la'met. 
Wln'ne-ba'grt. 
"Win  ne-pe  >au'kee. 
"Wig-cAs'set. 
Woiilwich,       wdbl'itch,      or 

wcTol'ij. 
Worcester,  wiTos'ter. 
Wiirteinberg,  wur'tem-berg 
Wy'an-dot'. 
Wy-o'ming. 


Yakutsk,  ya-kootsk'. 
Yang-tse-kiang,  yang'tse-ke- 

»ng'. 
Yar'kand'. 
Ya-zoo^. 
Yem'en. 

Yenisei,  yen'e-sa'e. 
Yezo,  ya'zo. 
Yo-ko-lia'ma. 
Yo-sem'1-te. 

Youghiogheny,y6h1io-ga'nt 
Yp'si-ISii'ti. 
Yu'ca-tan',  or  yoo'ka-tan'. 


Z. 

Zacafecas,  zak-a-ta^as. 
Zacualpan,  pii-kwal-pau'. 
Zam-be'si,  or  zam-ba'ze. 
Zanguebar,  zang'gft-bar'. 
Zan'te. 
Zan'zT-bar'. 
Zurich,  zu'rik. 
Zuyder,  zi'der. 


PACIFIC    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 


SPECIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


OF 


Montana^    Idaho^    Wyoming^    Colorado^    Utah^    New 

Mexico^  ^rizona^  California^  Nevada^  Oregon^ 

IVashingtoriy  and  Alaska. 

DESIGNED    TO    ACCOMPANY    SWINTON'S    GRAMMAR-SCHOOL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Copyright,  1884,  by  Ivison,  Blakeman,  Taylor,  &  Company. 


QUESTIONS    ON    THE    MAP. 

MONTANA. 

Situation.  —  What  country  on  the  north  of  Montana?  What  territory 
on  the  east  ?  What  territories  on  the  south  and  west  ?  Between  what 
degrees  of  latitude  is  it  located  r  How  many  miles  does  it  extend  north 
and  south  ?  What  degrees  of  longitude  nearly  mark  its  boundaries  ? 
How  many  miles  does  it  extend  east  and  west?  How  does  it  compare 
in  extent  with  the  other  territories  ?  In  what  great  plateau  is  this  terri- 
tory located?     What  is  its  shape? 

Surface. — What  is  the  general  surface  of  the  south-western  half  of 
Montana?  Of  the  north-eastern  half?  What  mountain  range  divides 
it  from  Idaho  ?  What  important  mountain  system  extends  through  the 
western  portion?  From  the  course  of  the  rivers,  what  do  you  infer  of 
the  elevation  of  the  western  part  ?  Of  the  eastern  part  ?  What  of  its 
comparative  general  elevation?  What  two  extensive  valleys  in  the 
eastern  part?    What  one  in  the  north-west? 

Lakes  and  Rivers.  —  What  are  its  three  principal  rivers  ?  Describe 
the  course  of  the  longest.  Of  its  main  branch.  Have  these  rivers 
many  tributaries  ?  Where  do  their  waters  reach  the  ocean?  Describe 
the  course  of  Clarke's  Fork.  What  lake  does  it  drain  ?  Where  does 
this  water  reach  the  ocean  ?  Is  this  territory  well  watered  ?  What  parts 
appear  to  be  most  so  ? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  What  three  counties  comprise  the  northern 
tier  ?  What  t\vo  the  eastern  tier  ?  What  county  extends  nearly  across 
the  state  on  the  west  ?  What  part  of  the  territory  appears  to  be  most 
inhabited?  Name  the  seven  southern  central  counties.  Name  and 
locate  the  capital.  Name  one  other  city  in  each  of  the  central  counties. 
Name  the  three  counties  largest  in  extent.  What  counties  appear  to 
be  least  settled  ?  What  important  National  division  partly  in  the  central- 
southern  portion  ?     Its  extent? 

IDAHO. 

Situation.  —  What  country  on  the  north  of  Idaho  ?  What  division 
on  the  north-east?  On  the  east?  What  state  and  territory  on  the 
south  ?  On  the  west  ?  What  river  forms  part  of  the  western  boundary  ? 
What  parallel  marks  its  northern  boundary?  Its  southern?  Nearly 
between  what  meridians  is  it  ?     What  is  its  shape  ? 

Surface.  —  What  mountain  range  divides  it  on  the  north-east  from 
Montana?  What  mountains  in  the  south-eastern  part?  What  is  the 
surface  of  the  central  portion  ?  What  extensive  valleys  does  it  con- 
tain ?    What  of  its  general  elevation  ? 

Lakes  and  Rivers.  —  What  is  the  principal  river  of  Idaho  ?  Where 
does  it  rise?  In  what  direction  does  it  flow?  Name  some  of  its  tribu- 
taries on  the  north  and  east.  On  the  south.  What  river  crosses  the 
northern  part  of  the  territory?  What  lakes  are  connected  with  it? 
What  lake  in  the  south-east  ?  What  is  the  outlet  of  this  lake,  and  into 
what  does  it  flow  ? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  What  counties  border  on  the  Snake  or 
Shoshone  River?  Name  the  western  tier  of  counties.  Name  the 
counties  adjoining  Montana.  What  is  the  north-eastern  county? 
What  is  the  capital,  and  in  what  county  ?  What  other  principal  places 
in  the  counties  adjoining?  In  what  parts  of  the  territory  are  the  chief 
settlements  ? 

WYOMING. 

Situation What  territory  on  the  north  of  Wyoming  ?  What  terri- 
tory and  state  on  the  east?  On  the  south?  What  two  territories  on 
the  west  ?  What  is  its  shape  ?  What  parallels  mark  its  boundaries  ? 
What  meridians  nearly  mark  its  boundaries  ?  According  to  the  scale 
of  miles,  what  is  its  extent  north  and  south  ?  East  and  west  ?  How 
many  square  miles  does  it  contain  ? 

Surface.  —  What  is  the  general  surface  of  Wyoming?  Which  por- 
tions are  most  mountainous  ?  What  mountains  in  the  south-east?  In 
the  center?  In  the  north?  Has  it  many  mountain  peaks?  Name 
several  of  the  most  important.  Which  is  the  highest  ?  What  do  the 
flowing  waters  show  as  to  height  of  land?  In  what  directions  do  its 
streams  flow  ?     Is  its  general  elevation  high  ? 

Lakes  and  Rivers.  —  What  four  large  rivers  have  some  part  of  their 
source  in  Wyoming?  Where  do  the  waters  of  each  find  the  ocean? 
What  is  the  length  of  the  longest  of  these  river  systems,  as  it  flows 
from  its  source  to  the  sea?  What  the  shortest  distance  across  the 
country  from  its  source  to  its  mouth  ?  [See  map  of  U.S.]  What  lake 
in  the  north-western  part  ?     Connected  with  what  river? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  How  many  counties  in  Wyoming?  Which 
is  the  largest  in  extent  ?  What  National  division  to  the  north-west  ?  Its 
dimensions  in  miles  ?  Near  the  size  of  what  eastern  state  is  this  Park? 
Name  and  locate  the  capital 


'''1     \  VX     A 

IDAHO,  ^  "     !i  / 
MOFTANAsWYOMIXG 


EXPLANATION 

Cities  of  over  ^000  inliabitants  are  underlined 

County  Towns      Bailroads  ■»  ■  -^  — 

SCALE  Of  MILES 

10      20      3l>40      60fiO7OS090     100~ 


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MONTANA. 


MONTANA. 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  145,776  square  miles.  Population  (Census  of  1880).  39,159.] 
I.  SITUATION  AND  EXTENT. 
Montana  reaches  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions  in  the 
west  to  the  great  plains  of  the  Mississippi  valley  in  the  east. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the 
west  by  Idaho,  on  the  south  by  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  and  on 
the  east  by  Dakota.  It  lies  between  longitude  104°  and  116° 
west  from  Greenwich,  and  between  45°  and  49°  north  latitude. 

The  greatest  length  of  the  territory  from  east  to  west  is  540  miles,  and 
its  width  north  and  south  is  275  miles. 


II.    SURFACE. 

The  surface  for  the  most  part  is  mountainous. 
The  western   portion    is  traversed  by  the  main 
range  of   the  Rocky  Mountains,  having  about 
one  fourth  of   the  territory  on   the  western 
slope,  and  three  fourths  on  the  eastern.     Be- 
sides the  main  divide,  there  are  many  smaller 
ranges  and  detached  groups  of   mountains. 
Between  these  are  many  beautiful  and  fertile 
valleys.     The  western  part  of  the  territorj'  is 
rugged,  while  the  eastern  slope  abounds  more 
in  plateaus  and  rolling  prairies,  which  in  the 
north  stretch  out  into  a  great  plain. 

Beside  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  principal 
subsidiary  ranges  are  the  Bitter  Root,  Deer  Lodge,  Bear  Paw, 
Big  Horn,  and  Powder  River  mountains. 

The  Mauvais  Teires,  or  bad  lands,  are  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
territor)-,  along  the  lower  Yellowstone  River,  and  south  of  the  .Missouri. 
These  lands,  which  have  until  recently  been  considered  a  desert,  are  now 
pronounced  the  richest  of  soils,  with  vast  deposits  of  iron  and  coal,  and 
containing  many  fossils. 

The  average  elevation  of  the  valleys  and  bench  lands  is  something  less 
than  3,000  feet,  while  the  average  elevation  of  the  territory  is  about  3,100 
feet  above  the  sea-level. 

The  principal  mountain  peaks  are  Emigrant  Peak  (10,629  feet),  Mount 
Powell  (10,500  feet),  Wards  Peak  (10,371  feet).  Mount  Cowan  (10,351 
feet).  Mount  Delano  (10,200  feet),  and  Mount  Blackburn  (ro,i34  feet). 

The  principal  valleys  are  those  of  the  Missouri,  Yellowstone,  Gallatin,  Madi- 
son, Jefferson,  Beaver  Head,  Deer  Lodge,  Bitter  Root,  Judith,  Sun,  and 
Prickly  Pear  rivers. 

III.    DRAINAGE. 

That  portion  of  the  territory  lying  west  of  the  main  range  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  is  drained  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  Clarke's  Fork  of  the 
Columbia  River,  and  its  tributaries. 

This  stream  from  Deer  Lodge  City  to  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Black-foot  is  called  locally  the  Deer 
Lodge  River:  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Marj's  or  Bitter  Root  River,  the  Hellgate;  and 
thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Flathead  River,  the  Missoula. 

That  portion  of  the  territory  east  of  the  main  range  is  drained  by  the  Missouri 
River  and  its  tributaries  into  the  Mississippi,  and  thence  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Within  the  limits  of  Montana  the  Missouri  averages  about  1,000  feet  in  width.   The  great  falls  and 
rapids  begin  a  short  distance  below  the  mouth  of  the  Sun  River,  and  extend  some  ten  miles  with 
a  descent  of  450  feet.     They  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  the  swiftness  of  their  waters. 
The  most  important  tributarj-  of  the  Missouri  is  the  Yellowstone,  which 
rises  in  the  Yellowstone  Lake  in  the  National  Park  of  the  same  name, 
and  flows  about  800  miles  north-westerly,  emptying  into  the  Missouri 
at  Fort  Buford.     This  river  is  navigable  for  about  400  miles,  and  is 
remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  for  the  grandeur  of  its 
falls  and  ca&ons. 


IV.    CLIMATE. 

While  the  climate  of  Montana  is  severe  in  some  localities,  it 
is  favorably  affected  by  oceanic  influences.  The  warm  Japan 
current,  washing  the  coasts  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  pours 
its  heat  into  the  atmosphere,  which  passes  over  the  mountains 
in  a  warm  wind  known  as  the  "  Chinook,"  producing  wonderful 


MONTANA. 


effects  upon  the  snows  of  the  severest  season.  During  the 
winter,  westerly  winds  prevail ;  and  this  season  resembles  the 
climate  of  the  Pacific  coast  rather  than  that  of  the  colder  north. 

V.    RESOURCES. 

The  resources  of  Montana,  though  to  a  great  extent  undevel- 
oped, are  of  no  mean  order.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  coal,  and 
building-stone  are  among  her  mineral  resources  ;  while  for  stock- 
raising,  agriculture,  and  lumbering,  the  opportunities  are  ample. 

Soil.  —  The  bottom  or  meadow  lands  along  the  streams  are  a  rich  black 
loam,  which  is  very  productive.  Farther  back  the  bench  lands  are  more 
sandy,  but  still  productive,  and  more  or  less  easily  irrigated.  The 
higher  tablelands  produce  fine  grasses,  but  are  not  classed  as  arable. 

Minerals Montana  is  rich  in  the  precious  metals.     Some  of  the  most 

productive  mines  in  the  history  of  American  mining  have  been  worked 
in  the  territory;  and  it  has  produced  more  gold  since  1862  than  those 
of  any  other  state  or  territory  excepting  California. 

Valuable  iron  ores  are  found  in  many  places,  particularly  in  Gallatin  and 
Deer  Lodge  counties.  In  the  latter  an  iron  mountain  yielding  thirty 
per  cent  pure  iron  is  found. 

Rich  deposits  of  copper  are  found  near  Butte  and  White  Sulphur  Springs, 
the  veins  carrying  ores  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent. 

Lead  is  found  in  great  quantities  in  several  places.  Bituminous  and 
lignite  coals  are  plentiful.  Hardly  a  county  in  the  territory  is  without 
it,  while  along  the  Missouri,  Yellowstone,  and  other  streams,  the  supply 
is  comparatively  inexhaustible. 

Excellent  building-stone,  a  beautiful  marble,  is  found  in  great  abundance 
near  Helena  and  Deer  Lodge  City,  as  well  as  in  other  places.  Other 
geological  resources  are  numerous  and  of  growing  importance. 

Forests.  —  Several  million  acres  of  the  mountain  uplands  are  covered 
with  forests,  pine  of  several  varieties  and  of  excellent  quality  predomi- 
nating. Other  varieties  are  cedar,  tamarack,  spruce,  cottonwood,  ash, 
willow,  and  box-elder. 

Montana  abounds  in  beautiful  scenery.  Grand  mountains, 
lovely  valleys,  wonderful  cascades  and  waterfalls,  and  magnifi- 
cent caverns,  are  among  the  most  prominent  features  of  scenery 
within  the  territory. 

VI.    INDOSTRIES. 

The  industries  of  Montana  are  chiefly  those  belonging  to  a 
thrifty  and  intelligent  pioneer  mountain  commonwealth,  rich 
in  the  natural  resources  of  the  forest,  the  mine,  the  valley,  and 
the  plain.  Mining  and  stock-raising  are  of  first  importance ; 
but  much  attention  is  also  given  to  lumbering,  agriculture,  and 
trade. 

Mining. —  Important  mining  operations  are  carried  on  in  almost  every 
county  in  the  territory,  and  this  is  the  chief  employment  of  many  of 
the  people.  In  addition  to  the  great  interests  involved  in  the  gold  and 
silver  mines,  the  copper,  lead,  and  coal  mines  are  also  of  much  im- 
portance. 

Stock-raising  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  Montana.  The  herding 
and  raising  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  afford  business  and  employ- 
ment to  a  great  many  people. 

Manufactures,  beyond  those  which  are  connected  with  mining  and  rail- 
roads, and  the  domestic  industries  of  the  people,  are  of  minor  im- 
portance. 

Agriculture.  —  A  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  territory  has  been 
brought  under  cultivation :  but  considerable  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley  are  grown,  while  potatoes,  onions,  beets,  turnips,  and  other  garden 
products  are  profitable  crops. 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  —  The  commerce  of  the  territory  consists 
in  exchanging  the  products  of  her  mines  and  ranges  for  the  merchandise 
necessary  for  the  people.  The  rivers  afford  a  water-line  to  the  seaboard, 
while  railroads  are  rapidly  pushing  through  the  territory. 

The  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  passes  through  the  territory  from  east  to 
west,  while  the  Utah  and  Northern  connects  with  it  at  Little  Black- 


foot,  giving  ample  facilities  for  rail  transportation  in  almost  every 
direction.  A  branch  line  has  been  built  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
way from  Livingston  to  the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 
Lumbering.  —  The  extensive  forests  of  Montana  render  the  lumber 
interests  of  the  highest  importance,  and  this  industry  is  already  em- 
ploying considerable  capital  and  large  numbers  of  men. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  government  of  the  territory  is  vested,  under  the  United 
States  Statutes,  in  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial 
departments.  Besides  the  oflficers  appointed  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  general  government,  the  territorial  officers  are 
an  auditor,  treasurer,  attorney-general,  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  and  three  district-attorneys. 

The  governor,  who  is  the  chief  executive  officer,  is  appointed  for  four 
years,  or  until  his  successor  is  duly  qualified,  unless  sooner  removed  by 
the  President. 

The  legislative  department  is  vested  in  an  Assembly  composed  of  two 
houses,  —  a  Council,  composed  of  twelve  members,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives,  composed  of  twenty-four  members,  all  of  whom  are 
elected  for  two  years.  Sessions  limited  to  sixty  days  are  held  biennially, 
commencing  in  January  in  the  odd  years. 

The  territorial  judiciary  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  two  associates, 
appointed  by  the  President,  who  are  styled  the  Supreme  Court.  The 
territory  is  also  divided  into  three  districts ;  and  district  courts  are  held 
in  each  by  one  of  these  judges,  at  times  and  places  prescribed  by  law. 

Each  county  has  its  own  officers  to  attend  to  the  business  of 
the  county  in  all  local  matters. 

Vlil.    EDUCATION. 

Montana  has  a  well-organized  public  school  system,  whose 
entire  support  is  derived  from  direct  taxation.  There  have  also 
been  established  at  numerous  places  fine  denominational  and 
private  schools. 

Recent  statistics  show  a  rapid  increase  in  the  enumeration  of  pupils,  in 

the  number  enrolled,  as  well  as  in  the  length  of  the  school  term  and  in 

the  number  of  schools  actually  taught. 
Teachers  are  usually  well  paid,  and  the  schools  are  liberally  supported, 

the  average  rate  of  taxation  voted  for  school  purposes  being  nearly 

four  mills  on  the  dollar. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

The  region  now  embraced  in  Montana  has  successively  be- 
longed, all  or  in  part,  to  Louisiana,  Oregon,  Washington, 
Nebraska,  Dakota,  and  Idaho.  The  present  territory  of  Mon- 
tana was  organized  under  the  provisions  of  an  Act  of  Congress, 
May  26,  1864. 

Nearly  all  of  Montana  came  under  control  of  the  United 
States  Government  in  1803,  by  means  of  the  Louisiana  purchase 
from  France. 

The  French  had  made  expeditions  into  what  is  now  Montana  as  early  as 
1743 ;  but  little  was  known  of  the  country  until  an  expedition  was  fitted 
out  by  the  United  States  Government  in  1804,  and  sent  to  explore  the 
region  lately  acquired  from  France,  under  the  command  of  two  army 
officers,  Capts.  Lewis  and  Clarke.  This  expedition  had  for  its  prime 
object  the  exploration  of  the  Upper  Missouri  River,  and  the  discovery 
of  the  most  direct  line  of  water  communication  across  the  Continent. 
In  July,  1805,  they  reached  the  point  where  the  present  Gallatin,  Madi- 
son, and  Jefferson  rivers  unite  to  form  the  Missouri.  In  August  they 
crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  followed  the  course  of  the  Columbia 
River  from  its  head  waters  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  they  reached  in 
November.  In  March,  1806,  they  set  out  on  the  return  trip,  reaching 
St.  Louis  in  September,  1806,  having  twice  traversed  the  whole  length 
of  Montana. 


MONTANA. 


In  1852  gold  was  discovered  in  what  is  now  Deer  Lodge 
County,  and  during  the  next  ten  years  in  several  other  places  ; 
but  it  was  not  until  1872  that  any  great  discoveries  were  made. 

From  this  time,  discoveries  of  Ijoth  gold  and  silver  have  been  frequent ; 
and  wonderful  mines  have  been  developed,  which  have  added  largely 
to  the  wealth  of  the  territor)-,  and  have  attracted  a  superior  class  of 
settlers  to  its  borders. 

In  1876-77  great  trouble  was  exjierienced  with  the  Indians,  principally 
the  Sioux  and  Cheyennes.  These  difficulties  have  all  been  settled, 
and  the  conditions  of  life  in  Montana  are  well  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  strong  and  intelligent  state. 

X.    POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

Montana  contains  thirteen  counties  and  the  following  leading 
cities  and  towns  :  — 

Helena  (7,000),  county  seat  of  Lewis  and  Clarke  County,  and 
capital  of  the  territory,  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city. 
It  is  situated  at  the  western  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on 
the  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 

It  is  the  commercial  and  financial  center  of  the  territory,  and  has  banks 

with   ample   capital,  stores  with   fine  stocks  of  merchandise,  hotels, 

churches,   and   other  public   buildings.      It   has   well  organized   and 

equipped  police  and  fire  departments,  and  is  lighted  by  a  system  of 

electric  lights.     Foundries,  smelters,  factories,  and  mills  of  various 

kinds,  afford  employment  to  hundreds.      It  is  surrounded  by  many 

and  extensive  gold  and  silver  mines,  which  contribute  to  the  thrift  and 

prosperity  of  the  city. 

Butte  City  (5,000)  is  the  county  seat  of  Silver  Bow  County,  and  the  most 

important  mining  town  in  the  territory.     It  is  a  handsome,  well-built  city, 

and  has  an  extensive  business  with  the  surrounding  mines  and  camps.    Here 

are  located  numerous  mills,  smelters,  roasters,  etc.,  for  the  treatment  of  the 

ores.     It  has  good  railroad  facilities,  and,  in  addition  to  its  direct  mining 

interests,  is  an  important  business  center,  with  excellent  .stores,  banks,  and 

business  houses  in  all  departments  of  trade  and  merchandise.     It  has  good 

schools  and  a  prosperous  and  well-regulated  city  government. 

Bozeman,  the  county  seat  of  Gallatin  County,  is  important  for  the  mining 
as  well  as  the  agricultural  interests  which  surround  it.  It  has  a  good 
business,  with  all  the  evidences  of  thrift  and  prosperity.  It  is  built  up  in 
good  style,  having  fine  churches  and  excellent  public  schools.  It  has  good 
railroad  facilities,  and  is  a  principal  outfitting  point  for  parties  visiting  the 
National  Yellowstone  Park. 

Missoula,  the  county  seat  of  Missoula  County,  is  beautifully  located  on 


the  Missoula  River,  and  is  a  thriving  and  prosperous  town.  It  has  extensive 
flouring-mills  and  mercantile  establishments,  which  do  a  good  business  with 
the  surrounding  country.  Churches  and  public  schools  have  been  established, 
and  prosperity  is  visible  in  every  direction. 

Miles  City,  county  seat  of  Custer  County,  is  the  most  important  city  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  territorj*.  Situated  on  the  Yellowstone  River  as  well 
as  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  it  has  important  commercial  facilities, 
and  is  a  prosperous  and  growing  town.  It  is  an  important  outfitting  point 
for  the  mining  camps  in  eastern  Montana  and  Dakato,  and  its  military 
business  through  Fort  Keough  is  important.  It  has  a  good  court-house, 
churches,  and  public  schools. 

Deer  Lodge  City,  the  county  seat  of  Deer  Lodge  County,  has  a  good 
trade  with  the  surrounding  mining  and  farming  community.  In  addition  to 
an  excellent  public  school,  it  is  the  seat  of  the  Montana  Collegiate  Institute, 
and  a  flourishing  school  under  the  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Fort  Benton,  county  seat  of  Choteau  County,  is  one  of  the  oldest  settle- 
ments in  the  territory.  It  was  for  years  the  principal  trading  and  distributing 
point  for  supplies  on  the  Upper  Missouri.  It  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  the 
supplies  and  merchandise  required  by  the  people,  as  well  as  in  the  exporta- 
tion of  furs  and  the  other  products  of  the  region. 

Billings,  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  has  a  good  trade  with  the 
surrounding  agricultural  country.  Extensive  irrigation  ditches  have  been 
constructed  in  this  region,  and  the  area  of  cultivated  lands  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. It  is  an  important  stock  shipping  p>oint,  and  has  railway-shops  and 
other  advantages. 

Glendive  is  situated  on  the  Yellowstone  River,  90  miles  from  its  junction 
with  the  Missouri.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  good  farming  country,  and  is  a 
point  for  the  shipment  of  cattle  and  sheep  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad 
to  eastern  markets. 

Livingston,  on  the  Yellowstone,  at  the  foot  of  the  Belt  Range,  is  an  im- 
portant railroad  station  on  the  Northern  Pacific,  and  the  point  of  departure 
of  the  branch  line  to  the  National  Park.  Here  are  located  extensive  machine- 
shops  and  engine-houses. 

Virginia  City,  county  seat  of  Madison  County,  is  also  a  prominent  out- 
fitting point  for  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  It  has  fine  churches,  good 
schools,  and  beautiful  and  attractive  houses. 

Alder  Gulch,  upon  which  the  city  is  located,  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
mining  camps  in  the  world,  having  yielded  not  less  than  $75,000,000  in  gold 
alone. 

White  Sulphur  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Meagher  County,  is  surrounded 
j  by  a  fine  farming  and  grazing  region,  and  is  a  flourishing  business  town.  It 
( is  a  prominent  resort  for  tourists,  hunfers,  and  invalids.  The  mineral  springs 
I  and  baths  are  very  popular. 

Dillon,  on  the  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad,  is  an  important  and  thriving 
[  town,  having  a  good  trade  with  the  surrounding  country. 


IDAHO. 


IDAHO. 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  86,294  square  miles.     Population  (1880),  32,600.] 

I.    SITUATION   AND   EXTENT. 

Idaho  touches  British  Columbia  on  the  north,  and  borders  on 
six  states  and  territories.  It  lies  between  42°  and  49°  north 
latitude,  and  between  ui°  and  117°  west  longitude.     In  shape 

it  is  an  irregular  triangle, 
440  miles  in  length,  with 


an  average  width  of  200  miles, 
half  as  large  as  California. 


In  area  it  is  a  little  more  than 


II.    SURFACE. 

Idaho  is  a  mountain  region.  Its  boundary-line  on  the  north- 
east is  one  of  the  main  ridges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  known 
in  the  northern  part  as  the  Bitter  Root  and  Coeur  d'Altoe 
mountains. 

This  range  is  nearly  500  miles  in  length ;  and  many  of  its  summits  reach  a 

height  of  from  10,000  to  13,000  feet. 

The  Salmon  River  Mountains  cross 
the  central  part  of  the  territor}'.  Sev- 
eral of  the  peaks  of  this  group  are 
between  13,000  and  14,000  feet  high. 

Valleys.  —  The  largest  valley  is  that 
of  the  Snake  River.  There  are 
numerous  small  mountain  valleys 
from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level. 

Between  the  south-western  spurs  of 
the  Salmon  River  Mountains  and 
the  Snake  River  is  a  considerable 
tract  of  arid  country  called  the  lava 
district  of  the  Snake  River.  This 
region  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
abounds  in  hot-springs  and  geysers. 

The  extreme  south-eastern  part  of  the 
territory,  belonging  to  the  Great 
Basin,  which  extends  over  a  large 
part  of  Nevada  and  Utah,  partakes 
of  the  surface  characteristics  of 
those  divisions. 


III.    DRAINAGE. 

Nearly  all  of   Idaho  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Columbia  River. 
The  extreme  south-eastern  part,  forming  the  rim  of  the  Great  Basin,  is 
drained  by  Bear  River,  which  flows  into  Great  Salt  Lake. 

Tlie  largest  head  stream  of  the  Columbia  is  the  Snake  or  Shoshone  River,  which  rises  in 
Wyoming,  near  the  Yellowstone  Park,  and  has  a  course  within  Idaho  of  850  miles. 
The  Snake  River  is  navigable  for  200  miles,  from  the  mouth  of  Powder  River  to 
Salmon  Falls;  and  also  from  Lewiston  to  its  junction  with  the  Columbia  in  Washington 
Territory.  The  river  runs  through  several  caflons  of  great  depth  and  magnificent 
scenery,  and  its  navigation  is  interrupted  at  several  points  by  cataracts  and  rapids. 
Among  the  finest  of  these  are  the  Great  Shoshone,  American,  and  Salmon  Falls.  The 
largest  tributaries  of  the  Snake  River  within  the  limits  of  Idaho  are  the  Salmon  and 
Clearwater  rivers. 

Other  important  tributaries  of  the  Columbia  are  the  Kootenai,  Pend  d'Oreille,  and  Spokan  ; 
the  first  two  joining  the  Columbia  in  British  America,  and  the  last  in  Washington. 

In  the  south-central  part  of  the  territory  a  number  of  small  streams  have  no  outlet  except 
in  the  sinks  and  lakes  of  the  lava-fields. 

iV.   CLIMATE. 

On  account  of  its  altitude,  Idaho  has  a  healthful  climate.  Spring,  summer, 
and  autumn  are  delightful ;  and  the  winters,  though  cold,  are  less  severe 
than  in  the  mountain  region  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  rainfall  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  territory  is  much  heavier  than  in  the  southern  part. 


8 


IDAHO. 


The  influence  of  the  warm  ocean  currents  flowing  down  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States  is  felt  here,  especially  in  winter.  Warm  winds 
blow  across  the  mountains  from  the  west,  and  mitigate  the  severity  of 
the  coldest  seasons.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  remarkably  high 
for  the  latitude,  the  isotherm  of  Harrisburg  and  Chicago  passing  con- 
siderably north  of  the  territory. 

V.    RESOURCES. 

The  resources  of  Idaho  consist  chiefly  in  its  mines  of  silver 
and  gold,  its  vast  extent  of  good  grazing  ground  for  the  pastur- 
age of  live-stock,  and  its  numerous  fertile  valleys. 

Minerals.  —  Gold  is  found  along  the  head  waters  of  most  of  the  mountain 
streams.  There  are  rich  silver  mines  in  the  southern  part  of  the  terri- 
tory.   There  are  also  extensive  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  not  yet  worked. 

Forests.  —  The  mountains  are  covered  up  to  the  snow  line  with  forests 
of  pine,  fir,  spruce,  and  hemlock ;  and  the  wooded  tracts  are  most  ex- 
tensive in  the  northern  part  of  the  territory. 

Soils.  —  The  soil  of  Idaho  in  the  long,  narrow  river  valleys  is  very  pro- 
ductive. In  the  northern  p>art  of  the  territory  the  rainfall  is  abundant ; 
but,  in  the  southern  half,  irrigation  is  required  in  order  to  secure  crops. 

The  elevated  mountain  valleys,  the  mountain  slopes,  and  the  rolling 
plains  are  covered  with  nutritious  grasses,  and  afford  extensive  grazing 
grounds  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

As  indicated  by  its  resources,  the  industries  of  Idaho  are 
mainly  confined  to  the  development  of  her  rich  mineral  re- 
sources and  the  herding  of  live-stock.  Supplementary  to  these, 
there  is  a  large  commercial  interest,  and  a  constantly  increasing  ■ 
production  of  cereals  and  fruits  to  supply  the  home  market. 

Mining — Although  gold  was  discovered  as  early  as  1852,  mining  opera- 
tions on  any  considerable  scale  began  only  in  i860.  Since  that  time, 
both  silver  and  gold  have  been  produced  in  large  quantities,  and  the 
total  product  to  date  has  been  nearly  $100,000,000.  Lead  is  also  a 
valuable  incidental  product  in  silver-mining  operations. 

Stock-raising.  —  Herding  is  rapidly  developing  into  the  most  important 
and  profitable  industry  of  the  territory.  In  1880  the  total  value  of  live- 
stock was  over  $2,250,000 ;  and  since  that  time  it  has  nearly  doubled 
in  value. 

Farming.  —  The  principal  farm  and  garden  productions  are  grain,  haj-, 
vegetables,  and  fruits,  —  such  as  apples,  pears,  plums,  peaches,  apricots, 
and  grapes.  In  1880  the  cereal  productions  amounted  to  1,300,000 
bushels,  and  the  hay  product  was  over  40,000  tons. 

Commerce — The  trade  of  Idaho  consists  in  the  exchange  of  gold,  silver, 
and  live-stock  for  manufactured  articles  of  every  description. 

Idaho  is  commercially  connected  with  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  which  crosses  the 
northern  part  of  the  territory  north  of  Lake  Fend  d'Oreille.  The 
southern  part  of  the  territory  is  connected  with  the  Union  and  Central 
Pacific  Railroad  system  by  the  Oregon  Branch  and  the  Utah  and 
Northern  Railroad.  The  latter  road  forms  a  connection  between  the 
central  and  the  northern  transcontinental  lines,  and  is  an  important 
commercial  route. 

Extensive  stage  routes  and  wagon  transportation  lines  connect  the  various 
parts  of  the  territory,  and  form  an  important  part  of  the  commercial 
equipment  of  the  country.  They  penetrate  the  mountain  valleys  in  all 
directions,  in  many  cases  where  the  railroad  is  impossible,  and  are  a 
necessary  and  distinctive  feature  of  mountain  life  in  the  territory. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

Idaho  has  a  territorial  government,  based  on  the  Act  of 
Congress  of  March  3,  1863. 


The  executive  department  consists  of  a  governor  and  secretary,  appointed 

by  the  President  and  Senate  of  the  United  States. 
The  legislative  department  consists  of  a  Council  of  twelve  members  and 

an  Assembly  of  twenty-four  members.     The  Legislature  holds  biennial 

sessions. 
The  judicial  department  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  (a  chief  justice  and 

two  associates);  district  courts,  held  at  various  points  in  the  territory  by 

the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court ;  probate  and  justices'  courts.     The 

justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  appointed  by  the  President,  with  the 

consent  of  the  Senate. 

VIII.    EDUCATION. 

Idaho  has  a  good  system  of  public  schools,  under  the  control 
of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  county  superintend- 
ents, and  three  school  trustees  for  each  district. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

The  area  of  Idaho  formerly  belonged  to  Washington  Terri- 
tory, and  was  set  apart  as  a  separate  organization  by  Act 
of  Congress  of  March  3,  1863.  At  that  time  it  embraced  all 
the  area  of  Montana  and  part  of  Wyoming.  It  was  reduced 
in  extent  by  the  organization  of  Montana  in  1864,  and  was 
given  its  present  limits  in  1868,  when  Wyoming  was  organ- 
ized. 

The  first  settlement  within  the  territory  was  made  in  1842,  when  a  mission 
was  established  at  Coeur  d'Alene,  a  few  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  that 
name.  With  this  exception,  there  were  no  white  settlements  in  the 
territory  until  about  the  year  i860.  With  the  advent  of  the  new  rail- 
road lines  from  the  enst  and  south,  the  growth  of  the  territory  has  been 
more  rapid  and  substantial. 

X.    POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

Idaho  is  divided  into  thirteen  counties,  and  contains  the 
following  leading  cities  and  towns  :  — 

Boise  City  (1,899), '"  Ada  County,  on  the  line  of  the  Oregon 
Branch  Railroad,  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.  It  has  an 
important  trade  with  the  mining  districts  in  the  central  and 
western  parts  of  the  territory.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  assay  office,  and  the  center  of  the  most  important 
financial  operations  in  the  territory. 

Lewiston  (739),  county  seat  of  Nez  Perces  County,  on  the  Snake  River, 
near  the  Oregon  line,  is  the  most  important  trading  town  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  territory.  It  is  at  the  head  of  nearly  three  hundred  miles  of  uninter- 
rupted navigation  on  the  Columbia  and  Snake  Rivers,  and  has  a  large  ship- 
ping trade  with  points  in  Oregon  and  Washington. 

Malade  City  (759),  county  seat  of  Oneida  County,  near  the  Utah  line,  is 
the  trade  center  of  an  agricultural  and  lumber  region  which  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing in  population  and  wealth. 

Silver  City,  county  seat  of  0\vyhe  County,  is  the  largest  town  in  the 
south-west  section  of  the  territory.  It  is  the  center  of  an  important  quartz- 
mining  district,  and  is  largely  employed  in  supplying  the  mines  and  reducing 
their  product. 

Idaho  City,  in  Boise  County,  is  the  trade  center  of  rich  mining  districts, 
both  gold  and  silver  being  mined  extensively  in  its  vicinity. 

Hailey  and  Bellevue,  in  Alturas  County,  are  important  mining  centers, 
which  have  recently  been  developed. 

Challis,  in  Lemhi  County;  Montpelier  and  Paris,  in  Bear  Lake  County; 
Placerville,  in  Boise  County;  Salmon  City,  in  Lemhi  County;  and  Wash- 
ington, in  Idaho  County, —  are  also  among  the  more  thriving  and  populous 
places  in  the  territory. 


WYOMING. 


WYOMING. 


[Area,  97,890  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation (1880),  20,798.] 

SITUATION    AND    EX- 
TENT. 

Wyoming  Territory  is 
situated  principally  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  extends  eastward  into 
the  great  plain  lying  between  these  mountains  and  the  Missis- 
sippi River. 

The  south-western  portion  slopes  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean  through 
the  Green  River  valley.  It  hes  between  41°  and  45°  north  lati- 
tude, and  between  longitude  104°  and  111°  west  from  Green- 
wich. 

The  length  of  the  territory  from  east  to  west  is  about  360  miles, 
and  its  width  north  and  south  is  about  270  miles.  It  is  the  ninth 
in  size  of  all  the  states  and  territories,  and  the  forty-sixth  in  popu- 
lation. 

II.    SURFACE. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  territory  is  mountainous,  being 
traversed  by  the  main  axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  principal  mountain-ranges  are  the  Black  Hills  in  the  north-east,  the 
Big  Horn  Mountains  in  the  north-central,  the  Shoshone,  Teton,  Gros 
Ventre,  and  Wind  River  ranges  in  the  west,  the  Laramie  Range  in 
the  southeast,  and  the  Rattlesnake  and  .Sweetwater  mountains  in  the 
central  portions  of  the  territory. 

Interspersed  between  these  mountain-ranges  are  extensive  and  beautiful 
plateaus  of  level  and  fertile  tablelands. 

The  principal  mountain  peaks  are  Mount  Hayden  (13,858  feet),  Fre- 
mont Peak  (13,570  feet),  Mount  Moran  (12,800  feet),  Washakie  Needles 
(12,250  feet).  Chimney  Mountain  (11,853  feet),  and  Elk  Mountain  (11,551 
feet). 

The  mean  altitude  of  the  Laramie  plains,  one  of  the  principal  plateaus, 
is  about  7,000  feet ;  while  Bridgers  Pass,  in  the  Medicine  Bow  Moun- 
tains, is  11,410  feet. 

Yellowstone  Lake  is  7,788,  Shoshone  Lake  7.670,  and  Lewis  Lake  7.750 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 


III.    DRAINAGE. 

Wyoming,   being   situated    mainly 
in  the  highest    parts  of  the   Rocky 
Mountains,    is    the    source    of    in- 
numerable rivers.     Three  of  the 
largest    rivers  on  the   continent 
receive  waters   through   her  bor- 
ders. 

The  Missouri  River,  through  the  North 
Platte,  drains  the  south-eastern  part  of 
the  territory ;    and  through   the   Chey- 
enne, Powder,  and  Big  Horn,  the  north- 
ern portion.     The  Snake  River,  which 
eventually  becomes  a  portion  of   the 
great    Columbia   River  of    the   north- 
west,   and    empties    into    the    Pacific 
Ocean,  has    its   source   in    the   north- 
western portion  of  this  territory ;  while 
the  Green  River,  which  drains  the  south-western  portion,  finds  its  way 
out  through  Utah  and  Colorado  into  the  Colorado  River,  and  thence 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean  througli  the  Gulf  of  California. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  the  territory  is  greatly  varied.  The  remote- 
ness of  the  ocean,  together  with  the  altitude,  exert  great 
influence  on  the  temperature. 

In  the  more  exposed  regions  the  winters  are  cold  and  severe;  but  the 
summers  are  delightful  for  their  mildness,  and  for  the  invigorating  in- 
fluences which  are  experienced  by  the  traveler.  On  the  plains  there 
are  seasons  of  severe  storm,  when  the  winds  from  the  mountains 
sweep  down  upon  them  in  great  fury ;  but  these  are  of  brief  duration. 
The  general  character  of  the  climate  in  these  regions  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  is  favorable  to  health  and  comfort. 

V.    RESOURCES. 

The  resources  of  Wyoming  are  varied  as  its  surface,  and 
of  great  importance,  but  in  the  main  they  have  not  as  yet 
been  fully  developed. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  on  the  plains  is  of  unsurpassed  fertility.  Though  irri- 
gation is  necessary,  as  a  rule,  to  successful  farming,  the  numerous 
streams  which  traverse  the  territory  afford  ample  facilities  for  this 
purpose. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  pasture-lands,  clad  with  nutritious 
grasses,  afford  abundant  range  for  millions  of  cattle.  The  pasturage 
continues  throughout  the  year,  as  during  the  winter  the  snows  are  dry, 
and  the  winds  drift  them  into  ridges ;  so  that  it  is  of  rare  occurrence 
that  a  herd  can  not  find  plenty  of  grass. 

Minerals.  —  Gold  and  silver  have  been  discovered  in  several  places  in 
the  territory;  and  the  Black  Hills,  the  Wind  River,  and  Big  Horn 
Mountains,  all  have  their  thrifty  and  prosperous  mining  camps. 

Copper  ores  in  great  abundance  have  been  developed  at  Hartville  and 
near  Cheyenne,  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  territory. 

Valuable  iron  ores  are  found  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  territory  near 
Rawlins,  and  near  Laramie  in  the  south-east. 

A  superior  quality  of  soft  coal  is  known  to  exist  in  great  abundance  in 
many  parts  of  the  territory,  especially  near  Carbon,  Evanston,  and 
Rock  Springs. 


lO 


WYOMING. 


Soda,  gypsum,  mica,  graphite,  kaolin,  fire-clay,  antimony,  and  sulphur  are 
also  among  the  mineral  resources  of  the  territory. 

Forests.  —  Portions  of  the  territory  are  finely  timbered,  the  varieties  of 
pine  spruce,  cedar,  and  Cottonwood  of  good  quality  being  most  fre- 
quent, and  covering  many  thousands  of  square  miles. 

Water.  —  The  many  mountain-streams  of  the  territory  afford  abundance  of 
water-power  for  the  handling  of  machinery,  for  mining,  and  for  irrigation. 

Scenery — The  scenery  throughout  the  territory  is  beautiful  and  grand. 
The  mountain  parks  and  valleys  are  much  resorted  to  by  pleasure- 
seekers  and  sportsmen.  Mineral  springs,  hot  and  cold,  in  great  vari- 
ety, are  abundant:  and  pulmonary  diseases  are  favorably  affected  by 
the  waters  and  the  climate. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

The  industries  of  Wyoming  are  rapidly  increasing  in  variety 
and  e.xtent,  and  already  employ  large  sums  of  capital. 

Grazing.  —  Cattle-raising  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  territory. 

While  cattle  often  go  the  year  round  without  other  feed  than  the  range 
affords,  the  most  successful  stockmen  are  now  providing  against 
emergencies  by  harvesting  and  stacking,  at  the  proper  season,  vast 
quantities  of  the  grasses  which  make  most  excellent  hay. 

Sheep-raising  is  also  an  important  industry  of  Wyoming,  and  there  are 
many  extensive  herds  yielding  a  handsome  income. 

Farming.  —  Increasing  attention  is  being  given  to  this  industry,  and  the 
principal  products  are  hay,  potatoes,  and  garden  vegetables. 

Lumbering. —  Important  lumbering  operations  are  carried  on  in  several 
localities ;  and  railroad-ties,  telegraph-poles,  laths,  shingles,  and  building 
and  fencing  boards  are  produced  in  large  quantities. 

Manufactures.  —  Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  the  manu- 
facturing interest;  and  extensive  rolling-mills,  railroad  repair-shops, 
and  wagon  and  carriage  shops  are  in  successful  operation. 

Commerce.  —  The  commerce  of  the  territory  is  almost  exclusively  by 
railroad,  and  consists  of  the  trade  in  cattle,  and  merchandise  generally. 
The  Union  Pacific  Railroad  passes  through  the  south  side  of  the  terri- 
tory, and  has  done  much  towards  the  development  of  the  resources  of 
the  territory.  The  Oregon  Branch  of  this  line  starts  from  the  town  of 
Granger,  in  the  western  part  of  Wyoming,  and  constitutes  an  important 
factor  in  the  business  interests  of  the  territory. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  territory  is  governed  under  the  laws  of  Congress ;  and 
the  governor  and  other  principal  officers  are  appointed  by  the 
President  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 

The  laws  provide  for  a  governor  and  other  territorial  officers,  who  con- 
stitute the  executive  branch  of  the  government. 

The  legislative  department  of  the  government  is  vested  in  a  Legisla- 
tive Assembly,  made  up  of  two  houses,  —  the  Council,  or  upper  house, 
and  the  House  of  Representatives,  —  both  elected  for  two  years.  Ses- 
sions are  held  biennially  in  the  even  years,  and  are  limited  to  sixty  days. 

The  judiciary  power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court  with  three  judges,  who 
are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  hold  oflSce 
for  four  years ;  district  courts,  circuit  courts,  and  others  of  inferior 
jurisdiction,  whose  ofiScers  are  elected  by  the  people  for  terms  of  vary- 
ing length. 

The  right  to  vote  is  extended  to  women  equally  with  men  at  all  terri- 
torial elections. 

VIII.    EDUCATION. 

Liberal  provisions  have  been  made  for  the  support  of  public 

schools.     A  territorial  superintendent   is  at  the  head  of  the 

system,  and  county  superintendents  and  district  boards  have 

charge  of  the  details,  which  are  generally  well  provided  for. 

A  teachers'  institute  is  provided  for,  which  may  arrange  and  prescribe  a 
course  of  study  for  uniform  use  throughout  the  territory.  Women  may 
vote  at  the  school  elections,  and  are  eligible  to  hold  school  offices. 
Parents  are  required  to  see  that  their  children  between  the  ages  of 
seven  and  sixteen  attend  school  during  three  months  in  each  year. 
The  larger  towns  maintain  excellent  graded  schools,  good  buildings 
are  provided,  and  the  schools  receive  liberal  and  popular  support. 


IX.    HISTORY. 

The  greater  portion  of  this  territory  was  acquired  by  the 
United  States,  through  the  "  Louisiana  Purchase,"  from  France 
in  1803,  though  a  portion  of  the  south-western  section  came 
under  the  protection  of  our  government  by  the  "  treaty  of 
1848"  with  Mexico. 

The  territory  was  organized  by  Act  of  Congress,  July  25,  1858. 

X.    THE   NATIONAL    PARK. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park  occupies  the  north-western 
corner  of  the  territory,  and  affords  the  tourist  and  pleasure- 
seeker  a  greater  variety  of  natural  and  scenic  attractions  than 
any  other  locality  on  the  continent. 

The  Yellowstone  Lake,  7,788  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  remark- 
able for  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  its  surroundings.  The  geysers 
are  wonderful  alike  to  the  pleasure-seeker  and  the  scientist,  while  the 
general  mountain  scenery  rivals  that  of  any  other  region  in  the  world. 

XI.    POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

Wyoming  is  divided  into  seven  counties,  and  contains  the 
following  leading  cities  and  towns  :  — 

Cheyenne  (6,000),  the  capital  of  the  territory,  and  its  chief 
city,  is  an  important  railway  center,  106  miles  north  of  Denver, 
and  516  miles  west  of  Omaha. 

It  is  the  leading  shipping  and  outfitting  point  for  the  great  mining  and 
stock-raising  regions  of  Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  Montana.  Banking- 
houses  with  ample  capital,  large  wholesale  stores,  and  many  fine  private 
residences,  churches,  and  schools,  indicate  the  wealth,  enterprise,  and 
industry  of  the  community. 

Laramie  City  (3,500),  "The  Gem  of  the  Plains,"  57  miles  west  of  Chey- 
enne, is  also  a  thriving,  growing  city.  Extensive  rolling-mills,  owned  and 
operated  by  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  afford  employment  for  several  hun- 
dred men,  and  have  a  capacity  of  25,000  tons  of  railway  iron  per  annum.  In 
addition  to  these,  large  railway  machine-shops  are  located  here.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity  are  rich  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  other  minerals. 
A  large  freighting  and  forwarding  business  is  done  with  the  surrounding 
ranches  and  camps. 

Rawlins,  situated  709  miles  west  of  Omaha,  is  the  county  seat  of  Carbon 
County.  Here  are  located  extensive  machine-shops  which  afford  employ- 
ment to  large  numbers.  It  has  a  fine  business  in  shipping  and  outfitting 
for  the  Big  Horn  mining  regions,  and  is  an  important  point  for  the  ship- 
ment of  cattle.  Iron  ore  is  mined  near  by,  and  a  superior  metallic  paint 
has  been  made  in  this  vicinity. 

Evanston,  the  county  seat  of  Uintah  County,  is  a  well-built  and  flourish- 
ing town,  with  railway  machine-shops,  and  a  large  trade  in  lumber  and 
charcoal.  It  is  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  extensive  coal-mines,  which 
yield  half  a  million  tons  per  annum. 

Carbon,  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  657  miles  west  of  Omaha,  is 
principally  engaged  in  mining  and  the  business  tributary  to  the  mining 
interests. 

Rock  Springs,  situated  830  miles  west  of  Omaha,  is  an  important  coal- 
producing  town.  It  also  has  a  large  business  in  the  handling  and  shipping 
of  cattle  to  the  eastern  markets. 

Green  River,  the  county  seat  of  Sweetwater  County,  is  a  railroad  town, 
with  machine-shops,  round  houses,  etc.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  fine  agri- 
cultural region,  and  has  a  good  trade  with  the  surrounding  country. 

Sherman,  situated  upon  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  an 
altitude  of  8,242  feet,  commands  a  grand  view  of  the  Laramie  plains,  with 
their  countless  herds  of  cattle  and  beautiful  river  scenery.  A  monument 
to  the  memory  of  the  projectors  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  has  been 
erected  on  the  summit  in  the  village. 

Hilliard  is  a  lumber  town,  situated  943  miles  west  of  Omaha.  A  flume 
33  miles  long  has  been  constructed  to  transport  lumber,  ties,  telegraph- 
poles,  and  cordwood  from  the  lumber-camps  to  the  railroad.  Other  indus- 
tries are  the  manufacture  of  charcoal  and  the  smelting  of  ores  which  are 
shipped  from  Utah. 


COLORADO. 


II 


COLORADO. 


GRAND    CANON    OF    THE   GUNNISON. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

Situation.  —  What  is  the  shape  of  Colorado?  What  parallels  mark 
its  northern  and  southern  boundaries  ?  Nearly  between  what  meridians 
is  it.'  How  many  miles  in  length  according  to  the  scale  of  miles  on 
the  map  ?  How  many  in  width  ?  What  state  and  division  on  the  north  ? 
What  states  on  the  east  ?    What  divisions  on  the  south .'    On  the  west.' 

Surface.  —  Of  what  great  plateau  is  Colorado  a  characteristic  part? 
Where  in  this  plateau  is  it  located  ?  What  general  mountain  range  is 
prominent  here  ?  Give  the  names  of  some  of  its  minor  divisions.  Name 
some  of  the  principal  mountain  peaks.  Give  their  location.  What  is 
the  surface  in  the  western  two-thirds  of  the  state  ? '  The  eastern  third? 
Where  are  the  North,  Middle,  and  South  parks? 

Rivers.  —  What  four  large  rivers  have  their  sources  in  this  state  ? 
[See  also  other  maps  of  this  region.]  Which  flow  west  ?  Which  south  ? 
Which  east?  Where  does  each  reach  the  ocean ?  What  do  these  rivers 
indicate  in  respect  to  the  height  of  land? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  Name  the  counties  crossed  by  the  105th  me- 
ridian. By  the  io6th  meridian.  How  many  counties  has  this  state?  [In 
what  county  do  you  live?  In  what  part  of  the  state?  Its  county  seat?] 
Name  and  locate  the  state  capital.  What  is  the  second  city  in  size? 
What  other  principal  cities,  and  where  located  ?  In  what  natural  region 
are  most  of  the  cities  and  towns  located?  What  do  you  judge  from  the  map 
to  be  peculiar  to  the  eastern  tier  of  counties? 

DESCRIPTION. 

[>lreo,  103,925  square  miles.    Population  {1880),  194,327.] 
POSITION  AND   EXTENT. 

Colorado  is  one  of  the  Pacific  Highland  States,  and  the  most 
western  state  having  an  eastern  drainage.  It  is  situated  partly 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  partly  in  the  great  plain  of 
the  Mississippi  valley,  between  latitude  37°  and  41°  north,  and 
longitude  102°  and  109°  west  from  Greenwich. 

Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  380  miles,  and  its  width 
north  and  south  about  275  miles.  It  is  the  thirty-fifth  state  in 
population,  and  the  fourth  in  area. 

II.  SURFACE. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the 
state  —  its  eastern  end  — 
is  a  great  plain,  through 
which  course  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  Arkan- 
sas and  Platte  rivers,  ren- 
dering its  surface  beauti- 
fully undulating ;  but,  in 
the  main,  this  portion  of 
the  state  is  very  level,  pre- 
senting much  the  appear- 
ance of  a  vast  sea  of  grass. 
The  western  division  is 
traversed  by  the  various 
ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  here 
attain  their  greatest  alti- 
tude, with  broad  table- 
lands or  plateaus  on  their 

GARDEN    OF    THE    GODS.  WeStCm    slope. 


H 


COLORADO. 


The  Front  or  Colorado  range,  in  the  north-central,  and  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo  range  in  the  south-central  portions  of  the  state,  rising  through 
a  series  of  verdure-clad  foot-hills  from  the  broad  plains  on  the  east, 
form  part  of  the  great  western  watershed  of  the  continent. 
West  of  these,  the  Park,  Saguache,  San  Juan,  Uncompahgre,  Roan,  and 
Elk  ranges  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  state.  Interspersed  among 
these  ranges  of  mountains  are  numerous  "parks,"  or  elevated,  irregu- 
lar plateaus,  where  may  be  found,  shut  in  by  peaks  clad  in  perpetual 
snow,  vast  areas  of  valuable  fertile  lands  clothed  with  verdure,  and 
dotted  with  the  homes  of  an  enterprising  and  thrifty  agricultural 
people. 
The  most  important  of  these  natural  gardens,  with  their  approximate 
areas  and  elevations,  are, — 

North  Park.  —  Area,  2,500  square  miles  :  elevation,  9,000  feet. 

Middle  Park.  —  Area,  3,000  square  miles  :  elevation,  8,500  feet. 

South  Park.  —  Area,  2,200  square  miles ;  elevation,  9,500  feet. 

Estes  Park.  —  Area,  100  square  miles  ;  elevation,  7,500  feet. 

San  Luis  Park.  —  Area,  8,000  square  miles;  elevation,  7,500  feet. 

The  principal  mountain-peaks,  with  their  elevations,  are, — 


Mount  Blanco 14,464 

Mount  Evans '4533° 

Pike's  Peak 14,147 

Mount  Elbert M.SS' 

Holy  Cross 14,176 

Spanish  Peak 13,620 


Mount  Rosalie I4i340 

Uncompahgre  Peak      .     .     .  14,235 

Gray's  Peak i4-34i 

Long's  Peak 14,271 

Mount  Massive 141298 

Buckskin  Mountain.     .     .    .  14,296 


Hi.    DRAINAGE. 

While  Colorado  has  no  navigable  rivers,  her  position  upon 
the  very  crest  of  the  continent  makes  her  the  source  of  many 
streams,  part  of  them  finding  their  way  through  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Rio  Grande  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  part 
through  the  Colorado  into  the  Pacific. 

The  principal  streams  of  the  Mississippi  system,  which  originate  in 
this  state,  are  the  North  Platte,  which  rises  in  the  Park  and  Front 
Mountains,  and  the  South  Platte,  which  rises  in  the  Front  Mountains 
in  the  north-central  part  of  the  state,  together  forming  the  Platte 
River  of  Nebraska,  which  empties  into  the  Missouri  at  Plattsmouth  ; 
the  Republican,  which  rises  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state,  and  flows 
out  through  Kansas  and  Nebraska  into  the  Missouri  at  Kansas  City; 
and  the  Arkansas,  which  has  its  source  a  little  north  and  west  of  the 
center  of  the  state,  and  flows  south-westerly  through  grand  gorges  and 
cafions  into  the  great  eastern  plain,  passing  out  of  the  state  into  Kan- 
sas near  the  38th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  continuing  an  easterly 
and  south-easterly  course  to  the  Mississippi. 

The  Rio  Grande  rises  in  the  San  Juan  region  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  state,  passes  south  into  New  Mexico,  in  longitude  106°  west, 
flowing  south  through  that  territory,  and  south-east  between  Texas 
and  Mexico,  into  the  Gulf. 

The  Colorado  River,  which  empties  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  through  the 
Gulf  of  California,  receives  as  tributaries  from  this  state  the  San 
Juan,  which  rises  in  the  south-west  corner  of  the  state,  and  flows  out 
through  New  Mexico ;  the  Grand,  which  flows  west  into  Utah ;  and 
the  White  and  Yampa,  tributaries  of  the  Green  River  of  Wyoming, 
which  drain  the  north-western  portion  of  the  state. 

IV.   CLIMATE. 

The  state  being  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, far  removed  from  the  modifying  influences  of  the  ocean, 
its  climate  partakes  of  the  character  of  every  latitude.  The 
rigors  of  a  northern  winter,  and  the  balmy  breezes  of  an  Ital- 
ian summer,  may  both  be  experienced  within  a  day's  journey. 

The  extreme  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  tempers  the  severity  of  the 
cold  in  winter,  and  the  exhilarating  effects  of  the  altitude  make  the 
summers  most  delightful.  Pulmonary  affections  are  greatly  benefited 
by  the  climate  and  waters. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  50°. 


The  rainfall  is  scant  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  is  exceedingly  varied. 
The  influences  of  irrigation  and  agriculture  will,  it  is  anticipated, 
promote  the  quantity  as  well  as  the  uniformity  of  the  rainfall. 


V.    RESOURCES. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  of  Colorado  is  naturally  fertile;  but  the 
insufficiency  of  the  rainfall  makes  irrigation  a  necessary  ad- 
junct of  successful  agriculture  in  most  parts  of  the  state. 

The  most  productive  lands  are  found  in  the  parks  and  valleys  of  the 
South  Platte,  Clear,  Cherry,  South  Boulder,  San  Luis,  and  Rio  Grande, 
while  the  level  lands  in  all  parts  of  the  state  yield  a  fruitful  harvest 
wherever  they  can  be  artificially  watered.  The  great  plains  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state,  as  well  as  the  parks  and  plateaus  of  the 
mountain  regions,  afford  excellent  pasturage  the  year  round. 

Minerals.  —  Gold  was  first  discovered,  in  Colorado  in  1858; 
and  the  more  important  deposits  are  found  in  what  miners  call 
"true  fissure"  veins  or  lodes,  and  in  "chimneys"  having  the 
appearance  of  the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes. 

These  deposits  are  extremely  rich.  Many  of  them  have  been  penetrated 
for  hundreds  of  feet  without  any  apparent  reduction  of  the  quantity 
of  the  ores.  The  most  productive  mines  are  located  in  Gilpin  County; 
but  gold  is  found  in  one  form  or  another  throughout  all  the  moun- 
tainous portions  of  the  state. 

Silver  was  discovered  as  early  as  1864  near  Georgetown, 
but  it  was  not  until  1870  that  any  important  results  were 
reached.  The  importance  of  the  silver  deposits  was  never 
suspected  until  the  great  mines  of  carbonate  ores  were  opened 
near  Leadville  in  1877,  about  which  time  the  silver  excitement 
reached  its  height. 

Like  gold,  the  silver  is  found  in  all  the  geological  combinations.  "  Na- 
tive silver,"  "ruby  silver,"  "silver  glance,"  "smelting  ore,"  "free-mill- 
ing ore,"  "mill  dirt,"  "stamp  rock,"  "sand  carbonates,"  etc.,  are  terms 
used  in  describing  them,  while  they  are  found  in  veins,  lodes,  fissures, 
contracts,  sedimentary  deposits,  and  other  forms.  Silver  in  various 
forms  is  found  in  almost  every  county  in  the  mountainous  part  of  the 
state,  Lake  producing  the  greatest  quantity,  followed  by  Gilpin,  Clear 
Creek,  Boulder,  Summit,  Gunnison,  Pitkin,  Custer,  San  Juan,  Hins- 
dale, Dolores,  Grand,  Saguache,  Chaffee,  Ouray,  Park,  and  others. 
The  principal  deposits  are  found  in  beds  or  strata  between  layers  of 
porphyry  and  limestone. 

Coal  of  superior  quality  is  found  in  r^any  parts  of  the  state. 
There  are  thousands  of  square  miles  underlaid  with  valuable 
deposits,  and  the  supply  is  comparatively  inexhaustible. 

An  excellent  lignite,  adapted  to  domestic  use  and  to  railway  purposes, 
is  mined  in  large  quantities  in  the  vicinity  of  Boulder.  Bituminous 
varieties  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Trinidad,  as  well  as  in  the  south- 
west near  Durango,  and  in  the  regions  around  Gunnison.  Anthracite 
has  been  discovered  in  several  places ;  but  its  extent  and  value  is  as 
yet  comparatively  unknown. 

Iron  ores  in  many  of  the  valuable  varieties  have  been  discovered  in  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  state,  and  are  abundant  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  coal-measures. 

Quarries  of  excellent  granite,  limestone,  sandstone,  etc.,  have  been 
opened,  and  marbles  of  superior  texture  and  color  are  abundant. 

Among  the  other  minerals  of  Colorado  are  agates,  alum,  amethyst,  anti- 
mony, arsenic,  baryta,  bismuth,  chalcedony,  chalk,  copper,  fire-clay, 
garnet,  graphite,  gypsum,  jasper,  manganese,  mica,  onyx,  opal,  salt, 
soda,  sulphur,  talc,  topaz,  tufa,  turquoise,  etc. 

Mineral  springs  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  Waters,  both 
hot  and  cold,  containing  salt,  soda,  sulphur,  iron,  etc.,  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  their  medicinal  properties  make  them  the  resort  of 
thousands  of  invalids  and  tourists. 


COLORADO. 


15 


The  forests  of  Colorado  are  not  rich  in  valuable  timber;  but  the  moun- 
tain-regions are  abundantly  supplied  in  the  lower  altitudes  with  many 
varieties  of  pine,  spruce,  fir,  aspen,  hemlock,  and  cedar. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

Mining. — As  the  wealth  of  Colorado  lies  in  her  mines,  so 
the  principal  industry  of  her  people  is  devoted  to  their  work- 
ing. The  digging  and  raising  of  the  ores  to  the  surface  is  a 
work  of  great  labor,  and  affords  profitable  employment  to 
thousands  of  men.  These  ores  are  then  treated  by  various 
processes  known  to  science,  resulting  in  the  extraction  of  the 
precious  metal  which  becomes  the  bullion  of  commerce. 

The  ore  beds,  or  veins,  or  contracts,  are  reached  through  shafts,  ver- 
tically, or  through  tunnels  into  the  face  of  the  mountains,  horizontally. 
All  these  openings  have  to  be  made  with  much  labor  and  skill,  and 
heavy  timbers  are  placed  to  protect  the  sides  from  caving  in  upon  the 
workmen. 

The  ores,  as  they  come  from  the  mine,  are  generally  sold  by  the  mine- 
owner  to  the  mills  or  smelters,  where  the  reduction  to  bullion  is  made 
by  various  processes  of  pulverization  by  stamp-mills,  roasting-ovens, 
and  smelting-furnaces. 

In  many  cases  the  ores  are  transported  hundreds  of  miles  before 
treatment,  while  in  others  they  are  treated  near  the  mines  by  works 
erected  with  special  reference  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  ores  of 
the  locality. 

There  are  many  different  methods  of  reducing  ores.  Some  of  the 
processes  involve  the  principles  of  chemistry  to  a  wonderful  degree, 
while  others  are  very  simple.  In  many  cases  the  refuse  of  one  course 
of  treatment  is  made  to  pay  a  handsome  profit  when  submitted  to 
another  and  different  process. 

Agriculture.  —  While  mining  has  been  the  great  business 
of  Colorado,  agriculture  affords  employment  to  an  industrious 
and  numerous  portion  of  her  people. 

The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  oats,  barley,  corn,  potatoes,  hay,  and  the 
products  of  the  garden.  Lands  which  a  few  years  ago  were  com- 
paratively worthless  have  been  made  productive  by  the  introduction 
of  a  system  of  irrigation ;  and  experiments  are  now  being  made  in 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  state  with  artesian  wells,  from  which  it  is 
hoped  an  ample  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  will  be  afforded  in  lo- 
calities remote  from  the  mountains. 

Cattle-raising  is  an  important  industry.  The  climate  is  favorable,  and 
the  native  grasses  are  abundant,  afiording  nutritious  food  all  the  year 
round. 

Wool-growing  is  also  carried  on  to  a  large  extent,  and  is  a  productive 
and  profitable  business. 

Fruit-growing  has  received  considerable  attention,  and  small  fruits  yield 
abundant  and  paying  returns. 

Manufactures.  —  The  most  important  manufacturing  inter- 
ests in  Colorado  are  those  which  are  represented  by  the  es- 
tablishments for  treating  ores,  though  iron  and  steel  works, 
foundries,  and  rolling-mills  have  already  been  put  in  operation. 
The  developments  of  the  iron  and  coal  fields  will  undoubtedly 
enhance  the  interest  of  capitalists  in  these  enterprises. 

The  commerce  of  the  state  is  principally  with  the  east,  and  by  railroad. 
The  interchange  of  bullion,  cattle,  wool,  etc.,  the  products  of  Colo- 
rado industry,  for  the  merchandise  of  the  eastern  markets,  makes  a 
business  of  great  magnitude. 

Transportation.  —  The  railway  systems  which  center  in  this 
state  are  numerous  and  important.  "The  Colorado  Pool "  is 
a  powerful  factor  in  the  railway  interests  of  the  west. 

Important  divisions  of  the  Union  Pacific  System  radiate  from  Denver 
in  four  directions.  The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  the  Burlington 
Route,  the  Denver  and  New  Orleans,  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  F6,  are  all  important  lines. 


VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  state  government  consists  of  three  departments,  —  the 
executive,  the  legislative,  and  the  judicial. 

The  officers  composing  the  executive  department  are  a  governor,  lieu- 
tenant-governor (who  is  also  president  of  the  Senate),  secretary  of 
state,  auditor,  treasurer,  attorney-general,  and  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  all  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  and  holding 
their  respective  offices  for  the  term  of  two  years. 

The  legislative  department  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. Regular  sessions  are  held  biennially,  convening  on  the 
first  Wednesdays  in  January  of  the  odd  years.  The  Senate  is  com- 
posed of  twenty-six  members,  elected  for  four  years ;  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  of  forty-nine  members,  elected  for  two  years. 

1\i^  judicial  department  is  administered  through  a  supreme  court,  the 
three  judges  of  which  are  chosen  for  nine  years;  six  district  courts, 
with  six  judges,  each  elected  for  six  years ;  county  courts,  with  one 
judge  in  each  county,  elected  for  three  years ;  and  justices'  courts, 
which  are  presided  over  by  justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  chosen  for 
two  years. 

In  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  Colorado  is  entitled  to  two 
senators  and  one  representative;  and  the  state  has  three  votes  in  the 
Electoral  College  in  choosing  a  President  of  the  United  States. 


Vli 


EDUCATION. 


The  public-school  system  was  early  made  a  prominent  fea- 
ture in  the  policy  of  the  state. 

The  organization  consists  of  a  state  superintendent,  state  board  of 
education,  state  board  of  examiners,  county  superintendents,  and  dis- 
trict boards.  Provision  is  made  for  graded  schools.  State  and 
county  teachers'  associations  have  been  provided  for. 

The  laws  require  at  least  sixty  days  of  school  in  each  district  annually; 
but  the  average  duration  of  the  schools  is  much  longer,  while  in  the 
cities  and  towns  the  schools  are  in  session  from  a  hundred  and  twenty 
to  two  hundred  days. 

The  state  institutions  are  the  State  University  located  at  Boulder,  School 
of  Mines  at  Golden,  Agricultural  College  at  Fort  Collins,  Mute  and 
Blind  Institute  at  Colorado  Springs,  and  Industrial  School  at  Golden, 
all  of  which  are  liberally  provided  for. 

Numerous  private  institutions  of  high  order  have  been  established. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

Territorial  History.  —  The  territory  included  within  the 
borders  of  Colorado  was  acquired,  part  from  the  French  through 
the  "Louisiana  Purchase"  in  1803,  and  part  from  Meixco 
through  the  "  treaty  of   1848." 

Prior  to  the  acquisition  of  that  part  of  the  territory  which  came  to  us 
from  France,  no  important  explorations  or  researches  had  been  made 
in  this  region.  In  1803  the  government  sent  out  a  small  expedition 
under  Lieut.  Pike.  Later,  in  1819,  Col.  S.  H.  Long  led  another  expe- 
dition, neither  of  which  made  any  foothold  or  discovery  of  importance. 
Private  enterprises,  as  late  as  1832,  were  unsuccessful  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  any  good  results ;  and  it  was  not  until  Cipt.  Fremont,  in 
1842  and  1844,  had  made  surveying  and  exploring  expeditions,  that  the 
government  knew  any  thing  of  the  character  of  its  newly  acquired 
domain. 

From  this  time  until  1858,  fur-traders,  explorers,  emigrants  bound  for 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  Mormons  on  their  way  to  Utah,  were  the  only 
white  men  who  ventured  into  these  regions.  In  1858,  however,  a 
prospecting  party  from  Georgia  established  a  lodgment  on  the  Platte 
near  the  present  site  of  Denver.  They  were  soon  joined  by  others, 
who,  hearing  of  the  discovery  of  gold,  flocked  to  the  new  Eldorado. 
Several  towns  were  established,  and  efforts  to  form  a  territorial 
government  were  at  once  inaugurated. 

A  territorial  government  was  not  fully  consummated  till  1861,  when, 
with  William  Gilpin  as  governor,  Colorado  first  became  an  organiza- 
tion under  the  United  States.     The  young  territory  grew  rapidly  in 


i6 


COLORADO. 


population,  and  had  hardly  acquired  a  territorial  standing  before 
efforts  were  made  to  secure  state  privileges,  which  came  near  being 
successful  in  1865,  when  President  Johnson  vetoed  the  "enabling 
act"  passed  by  Congress  for  that  purpose.  Continued  prosperity 
attended  the  territory,  however,  and  the  tide  of  immigration  flowed 
in  unabated. 

State  History. —  In  the  winter  of  1874-75  another  effort 
was  made  to  secure  a  state  government.  These  efforts  were 
successful ;  and  the  necessary  laws  having  been  enacted  by 
Congress  (March  3,  1875),  a  constitution  adopted  by  the  people 
(July  I,  1876),  and  state  officers  elected  (Oct.  3,  1876),  the  state 
government  of  Colorado  was  inaugurated  in  November,  1876, 
making  the  thirty-eighth  state  in  the  Union.  From  the  date 
of  its  admission,  Colorado  is  fitly  called  the  "Centennial  State." 

X.    POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

For  purposes  of  local  government  the  state  is  divided  into 
counties,  of  which  there  are  at  present  thirty-eight.  The  lead- 
ing cities  and  towns  are  as  follows  :  — 

Denver  (35,630)  is  the  capital  of  the  state,  its  commercial 
metropolis,  and  the  chief  railroad  center  of  this  part  of  the 
United  States.  The  city  was  first  settled  in  1858,  and  for  about 
fifteen  years  had  a  moderate  and  steady  growth,  which  gave 
place  in  1872  to  a  remarkable  era  of  prosperity,  which  has 
not  yet  ended. 

The  city  is  beautifully  laid  out,  and  is  located  at  the  junction  of  Cherry 
Creek  and  the  South  Platte  River,  a  few  miles  from  the  base  of  the 
foot-hills  which  rise  and  gradually  recede  into  the  mountains.  Long's 
Peak  and  Pike's  Peak  are  both  visible  in  the  distance. 

Denver  has  a  well-ordered  city  government,  water-works,  gas-works, 
electric-lighting  establishments,  telephone,  street-railways,  and  all  other 
conveniences  of  a  metropolis. 

Among  the  finest  public  buildings  are  the  Union  Depot,  Tabor  Grand 
Opera-House,  Tabor  Block,  Windsor  Hotel,  St.  James  Hotel.  There 
are  also  a  mining  and  industrial  exposition  of  great  proportions  and 
interest,  a  branch  of  the  United-States  Mint,  a  board  of  trade,  and  a 
stock  exchange. 

The  public-school  system  of  the  city  of  Denver  is  of  special  excellence. 
A  high  school  and  numerous  ward  schools  have  been  provided ;  and 
no  expense  has  been  spared  to  keep  the  requirements  up  to  the 
demand. 

Leadville  (14,820),  the  county  seat  of  Lake  County,  is  the 
second  city  in  size  and  importance  in  the  state.  This  city  is 
situated  near  the  Arkansas  River,  on  California  Gulch,  and  was 
settled  in  1876.  The  surrounding  scenery  is  grand  and  impos- 
ing.    It  is  the  leading  silver-mining  center  in  Colorado. 

Surrounded  by  the  richest  mines  in  the  state,  it  is  pre-eminently  a  min- 
ing city.  Numerous  large  smelting  and  reduction  works,  with  stamp- 
mills  and  other  mining  interests,  afford  the  principal  business  of  the 
city. 

The  city  has  a  good  system  of  public  schools,  with  excellent  buildings, 
which  are  a  credit  to  the  enterprise  and  taste  of  the  people. 

Pueblo,  county  seat  of  Pueblo  County,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Arkansas 
River,  and  South  Pueblo,  on  the  opposite  side  of  that  stream,  constitute  one 
of  the  most  populous  and  important  manufacturing  centers  of  the  state. 
Among  the  most  prominent  industries  are  steel  and  iron  foundries,  rolling- 
mills,  nail-mills,  car-shops,  smelters,  etc. 

A  rich  agricultural  region  lying  to  the  east  is  tributary  to  the  cities,  and 
important  railroad  lines  center  here. 

Both  cities  are  efficiently  organized  with  good  local  governments,  water- 
works, and  fire  departments,  and  maintain  excellent  systems  of  public  schools. 


Gunnison  City,  the  county  seat  of  Gunnison  County,  was  laid  out  in 
1879.  It  has  gas  and  water  works,  theaters,  banks,  churches,  newspapers, 
and  public  schools.  It  is  connected  with  Denver  by  two  lines  of  railway, 
and  is  the  distributing  point  for  the  many  mining-camps  in  South-western 
Colorado.     Important  manufacturing  establishments  are  located  here. 

Boulder,  the  county  seat  of  Boulder  County,  is  an  important  railroad 
center,  and  has  a  large  and  growing  trade  and  business.  The  coal-mines 
in  the  vicinity  afford  its  most  important  industry:  but  extensive  gold  and 
silver  mines,  and  important  manufacturing  interests,  all  contribute  to  its 
prosperity. 

Boulder  is  also  a  literary  center  of  the  state,  being  the  seat  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Colorado. 

Colorado  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  El  Paso  County,  was  settled  in 
1871,  and  has  already  become  a  flourishing  and  prosperous  citv.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  vicinity  of  many  points  of  interest  to  the  tourist,  and  is  the  resort 
of  thousands  who  make  it  the  base  of  their  excursions  to  Manitou,  Pike's 
Peak,  the  Garden  of  the  Gods.  Monument  Park,  Engleman's  Cafion,  etc. 
It  has  many  fine  buildings,  and  has  superior  educational  facilities,  with  ex- 
I  cellent  public  schools.  Colorado  College  and  Deaf-Mute  Institute  are 
located  here. 

Georgetown,  the  county  seat  of  Clear  Creek  County,  is  the  oldest  and 
one  of  the  most  important  mining  towns  in  the  state.  It  has  a  flourishing 
mining  business,  and  large  sampling  and  reduction  works.  There  are  many 
points  of  interest  in  the  vicinity,  and  it  is  an  important  radiating  point  for 
miners  and  tourists. 


Alamosa  —  situated  on  the  Rio  Grande  in  the 
famous  San  Luis  Valley,  is  surrounded  by 
grand  scenery,  and  is  the  center  of  a  flour- 
ishing business,  in  which  the  cattle,  wool, 
and  farming  interests  are  important  features. 

Aspen  —  the  county  seat  of  Pitkin  County,  was 
laid  out  in  1879,  but  has  already  become  a 
flourishing  community,  with  good  stores, 
smelting-fumaces,  etc. 

Black  Hawrk  is  situated  about  35  miles  west  of 
Denver,  in  Gilpin  County.  The  many  gold 
and  silver  mines  in  the  vicinity  make  it  one 
of  the  important  mining  towns  of  the  state. 
It  is  closely  allied  with  its  neighbor,  Central 
City,  in  business  and  social  intercourse. 

Breckeoridge  —  the  county  seat  of  Summit  Coun- 
ty, is  situated  on  Blue  River,  on  the  Pacific 
slope  of  the  main  range.  It  is  a  thriving 
town,  with  smelters  and  other  mining  ad- 
juncts. It  has  good  schools  and  a  great 
variety  of  business  interests. 

Buena  Vista  —  the  county  seat  of  Chafl*ce  Coun- 
ty, is  situated  on  the  Arkansas  River,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Denver  and  Southern  Pacific 
Division  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  with 
the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande.  It  has  a  flour- 
ishing business,  and  good  banks,  churches, 
and  schools. 

Canon  City  —  the  county  seat  of  Fremont  Coun- 
ty, is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arkansas  River. 
It  has  a  good  business  with  the  farming 
community  around  it.  It  commands  some 
of  the  finest  mountain  scenery  in  the  world. 
The  state  penitentiary  is  located  here. 


Del  Norte  —  the  county'  seat  of  Rio  Grande  Coun- 
ty', is  the  center  of  a  fine  farming  community, 
and  enjoys  a  good  trade  with  the  surround- 
ing  country. 

Durango  —  the  county  seat  of  La  Plata  County, 
is  situated  on  the  Pacific  Slope,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  fine  farming-lands,  and  some  of 
the  best  timbered  lands  in  the  state.  The 
coal-mines  near  by  are  an  important  element 
of  its  prosperity. 

Fort  Collins  —  the  county  seat  of  Larimer  Coun- 
ty, was  settled  as  a  colony  in  iS-ji.  It  is  a 
favorite  resort  for  tourists  visiting  the  neigh- 
boring mountain-parks.  It  is  situated  in  a 
fine  farming  section,  and  supports  good  pub- 
lic schools  and  a  large  public  library, 

Greeley  —  the  county  seat  of  Weld  County  and 
the  principal  market-town  in  its  portion  of 
the  state,  was  organized  as  a  colony  in  1S70. 
It  has  a  fine  business  with  the  surrounding 
country,  and  supports  an  excellent  public 
school. 

Longmont  —  situated  in  Boulder  County,  is  an 
important  town  in  a  fine  fanning  region.  It 
is  beautifully  laid  out,  and  is  a  popular  stop- 
ping-place for  parties  visiting  Estes  Park 
and  other  contiguous  mountain-resorts. 

Manitou  is  one  of  the  most  noted  pleasure-re- 
sorts in  the  state,  and  is  well  supplied  with 
every  thing  required  by  the  invalid  or  the 
tourist. 

Rico  —  the  county  seat  of  Dolores  County,  and  an 
important  mining  town,  has  stamp-mills, 
smelting-works,  banks,  churches,  and  excel- 
lent schools,  both  public  and  private. 


Other  important  mining  towns  are  Adelaide,  Alma,  Alpine,  Ashcroft 
Bonanza,  Caribou,  Coal  Creek,  Cochetopa,  Columbia,  Crested  Butte,  Fair 
play,  Frisco,  Garfield,  Gold  Hill,  Gothic,  Irwin,  Kokomo,  Lake  City,  Ne- 
vadaville,  Ohio  City,  Ouray,  Pitkin,  Red  Cliff,  Robinson,  Rosita,  Silver 
Plume,  Silverton,  Teller,  Tin  Cup,  and  Tucson. 

Box  Elder,  Como,  Deer  Trail,  El  Moro,  El  Paso,  Elbert,  Evans,  Fort 
Gariand,  Gardner,  Grand  Junction,  Hugo,  Kit  Carson,  Kiowa,  La  Junta, 
Loveland,  Saguache,  and  Walsenburg  are  important  from  their  agricultural 
surroundings. 

The  Alpine  Tunnel,  Antelope  Springs,  Brookvale,  Cottonwood  Springs, 
Dome  Rock,  Elkhorn,  Estabrook  Park,  Estes  Park,  South  Park,  Grand  Lake, 
Grant,  Green  Lake,  Hot  Sulphur  Springs,  Idaho  Springs,  Morrison,  Middle 
Park,  North  Park,  Pagosa  Springs,  Poncho  Springs,  Soda  Springs,  Twin 
Lakes,  and  Wagon-Wheel  Gap  are  noted  as  the  resort  of  tourists  and 
pleasure-seekers. 


UTAH. 


17 


UTAH. 


SALT     LAKE    CITY. 

QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

Situation.  —  What  divisions  bound  Utah  on  the  north?  What  state  on 
the  east?  What  territory  on  the  south?  What  state  on  the  west?  Over 
how  many  degrees,  north  and  south,  does  it  extend  ?  According  to  the 
scale,  how  many  miles  ? 

Surface.  —  What  general  natural  regions  is  the  surface  divided  into  from 
north  to  south  ?  Name  of  the  principal  mountain  range  ?  Names  of  its 
minor  divisions? 

Lakes  and  Rivers.  —  What  large  lake  in  the  northern  part?  What  other 
lakes,  and  where  ?  Have  these  lakes  surface  outlets  ?  What  is  the  largest 
river  ?  Describe  its  course.  Where  do  its  waters  reach  the  ocean  ?  Name 
some  of  its  chief  tributaries.  What  other  considerable  streams  ?  Into  what 
bodies  of  water  do  they  flow  ? 

Counties  and  Cities. —  In  what  part  of  Utah  is  the  principal  tier  of 
settled  counties?  Extending  in  what  direction  ?  Name  the  counties  rforth 
of  the  central  county.  Name  those  south  of  it.  Name  and  locate  the  capi- 
tal. What  are  the  largest  cities  north  of  it?  What  south  of  it?  [Name 
your  county.     Its  county-seat.     In  what  part  of  the  territory  is  it?] 

DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  84,970  square  miles.     Population  (in  1880),  143,963.} 
I.    SITUATION  AND  EXTENT. 

Utah  occupies  the  eastern  part  of  the  Great  Basin  and  the 
western  part  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Colorado.  It  is  included 
between  37°  and  42°  10'  north  latitude  and  109°  and  1 14°  west 
longitude. 

The  Great  Basin  is  a  remarkable  depression  of  land  lying  between  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Wahsatch  mountains,  mostly  in  Utah  and  Nevada. 
Much  of  the  land  is  an  arid  waste,  with  no  streams  and  little  vegeta- 
tion. The  waters  of  the  rivers  have  no  outlet  to  the  sea,  and  disap- 
pear in  sinks  or  in  salt  lakes. 

In  shape  Utah  is  nearly  a  parallelogram,  350  miles  in  length  north  and 
south,  and  280  miles  in  width.     In  area  it  is  a  little  more  than  half  the 


size  of  California,  and  near- 
ly the  same  size  as  Idaho, 
Minnesota,  or  Kansas. 

II.    SURFACE. 

As  indicated  by  its  loca- 
tion, Utah  is  divided  into 
two  great  plateau  regions, 
differing,  however,  very 
widely  in  all  their  surface 
features.  The  eastern  and 
western  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory are  of  about  the  same 
elevation,  —  5,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  ' 

Mountains.  —  Rising 
from  this  plain,  the  chief 
mountain  range  is  the 
Wahsatch,  which  extends 
nearly  north  and  south  the 
entire  length  of  the  terri- 
tory. 

The  Uintah  Mountains  are 
an  eastern  spur  of  the  Wahsatch.  extending  at  right  angles  from  the 
main  range  to  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  territory.  The  high- 
est elevations  in  the  territory  are  in  this  minor  range,  which,  in  the 
cases  of  Reed's  and  Hayden's  peaks,  reach  to  nearly  14,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  highest  points  in  the  Wahsatch  Range  are  Mounts 
Nebo  and  Baldy,  each  about  12,000  feet  high. 
The  western  part  of  the  territory  consists  in  part  of  barren  alkaline 
deserts,  or  of  plains  covered  with  a  scattering  growth  of  sage-brush 
and  grease-wood.  Toward  the  Nevada  line  are  several  short  ranges 
of  mountains. 

Valleys. —  Extending  from  the  crests  of  the  Wahsatch 
Range  are  numerous  spurs  and  lateral  ranges,  between  which 
are  found  many  very  fertile  valleys  supporting  a  thrifty  and 
prosperous  people. 

Among  the  more  important  of  these  valleys  are  the  Salt  Lake,  Bear 
Lake,  and  Utah  valleys,  adjacent  to  the  lakes  from  which  they  are 
named;  the  Bear  River,  Weber,  Upper  and  Lower  Sevier,  Ogden,  and 
Provo  valleys,  lying  along  the  rivers  of  the  same  name ;  and  the  Pah 
Vant,  Beaver,  Parowan,  and  Tintic  valleys,  named  after  the  mountains 
in  their  immediate  vicinity. 
Outside  of  the  Great  Basin,  the  most  important  valley  is  that  of  the 
Virgin  River,  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  territory. 

The  high  tablelands  of  Eastern  Utah  south  of  the  Uintah 
Range  partake  somewhat  of  the  surface  features  and  charac- 
teristics of  Colorado  and  Wyoming. 

III.    DRAINAGE. 

Western  Utah.  —  West  of  the  Wahsatch  Range  there  are 
no  waters  that  reach  the  ocean.  All  the  streams  flow  into 
salt  lakes,  or  disappear  in  sinks  in  the  desert. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  which  receives  the  drainage  of  about  20,000  square 
miles,  is  the  largest  saline  lake  in  the  United  States.  It  is  80  miles 
long  and  40  miles  wide,  and  covers  an  area  of  over  3,000  square  miles. 


i3 


UTAH. 


Its  waters  contain  22  per  cent  of  salt.  The  largest  streams  flowing 
into  it  are  the  Bear  River,  Weber  River,  and  the  Jordan. 

Utah  Lake  is  a  fresh-water  lake,  having  the  Jordan  River  for  its  outlet. 

Se\-ier  River  flows  into  Sevier  Lake,  a  body  of  saline  water  20  miles  long 
and  10  miles  wide. 

Bear  Lake,  lying  partly  in  Utah  and  partly  in  Idaho,  is  remarkable  for  its 
beauty  and  picturesque  scenery. 

The  rivers  within  the  rim  of  the  Great  Basin  are  all  short  streams,  rising 
in  the  mountains,  and  are  especially  serviceable  for  the  irrigation  of 
the  agricultural  valleys  through  which  they  flow. 

There  are  abundant  indications  to  show  that  a  large  part  of  the  Great 
Basin  was  once  occupied  by  a  great  inland  sea,  of  which  the  largest 
remnant  is  now  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  There  are  also  indications  that 
this  gradual  subsidence  is  still  going  on,  and  that  the  great  saline  lake 
is  lowering  its  level  year  by  year. 

On  account  of  the  great  percentage  of  saline  matter  in  solution  in  the 
lake,  no  animal  life  is  possible  in  its  waters.  The  specific  gravity  is 
one-sixth  greater  than  that  of  pure  water,  which  enables  it  to  float  the 
human  body  lightly  on  its  surface.  The  character  of  the  salts  held 
in  solution  is  also  such  as  to  render  the  waters  remarkably  curative 
and  in\ngorating  to  the  bather ;  and  thus  the  lake  has  become  the  resort 
of  many  people  who  seek  its  shores  either  for  health  or  pleasure. 

Eastern  Utah.  —  The  eastern  half  of  the  territory,  which  in 
its  general  physical  character  belongs  to  the  Colorado  river 
system,  has  several  noble  streams.  The  most  important  are 
the  Green  and  the  Grand  rivers,  which  unite  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  territory  to  form  the  main  stream  of  the  Colorado ; 
and  the  San  Juan,  which  has  a  course  of  150  miles  in  the 
extreme  south-eastern  part  of  the  territory.  The  Virgin  River, 
also  belonging  to  the  Colorado  system,  drains  the  south-western 
corner  of  the  territory. 

All  the  streams  of  the  Colorado  system  have  worn  deep  valleys  or 
cafions  in  the  soft  limestone  in  many  parts  of  their  courses.  The 
caflons  of  the  Colorado  River  proper  constitute  the  most  magnificent 
natural  feature  of  their  kind  in  the  world.  The  mysteries  of  these 
cafions  were  first  penetrated  by  Professor  J.  W.  Powell  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  in  1869.  He  entered  Green  River  with  his 
adventurous  party  at  a  point  in  Wyoming  Territory  near  the  Utah  line, 
and,  after  nearly  three  months  of  exploration,  came  out  at  the  foot  of 
the  Grand  Cafion  of  the  Colorado,  in  Western  Arizona. 

Scenery.  —  The  surface  and  drainage  features  of  Utah  con- 
tribute to  make  its  scenery  grand  and  picturesque.  The  terri- 
tory abounds  in  splendid  mountain  views,  beautiful  lakes,  vast 
chasms  worn  by  the  water  or  rent  asunder  by  earthquakes, 
extensive  lava-fields,  extinct  volcanoes,  and  huge  rocks  standing 
like  monuments  of  a  race  of  giants. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  Utah  has  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
Great  Basin.  The  air  is  exceedingly  dry,  owing  to  the  light 
rainfall.  On  the  plains  the  days  in  summer  are  intensely  hot, 
but  the  nights  are  cool  and  refreshing.  In  the  valleys,  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains,  the  summers  are  delightful,  and  the 
winters  mild  and  enjoyable.  The  upper  valleys,  between  the 
lateral  ranges,  are  cool  and  pleasant  in  summ  and  have  heavy 
snows  in  winter. 

V.    RESOURCES. 

The  resources  of  Utah  are  found  rnainly  in  its  great  moun- 
tain range,  the  Wahsatch.  Here  are  the  rich  stores  of  mineral 
wealth  that  have  yielded  to  the  skill  and  industry  of  the  miner, 
and  here  is  stored  the  far  richer  treasure  of  the  snow,  which 
alone  has  made  agriculture  a  possibility,  and  thus  has  rendered 
the  territory  habitable  by  man. 


Soil —  The  greater  part  of  Utah  is  a  desert  by  nature.  The  soil  of  the 
valleys,  having  largely  been  produced  by  wearing  away  of  the  mountain 
rocks,  meets  all  the  requirements  of  agriculture  except  the  element  of 
moisture,  and  therefore,  when  irrigated,  yields  bountiful  returns  to  the 
farmer.  Even  the  dry  soils  of  the  alkali  plains  and  deserts  readily 
submit  to  the  influence  of  moisture,  and,  when  washed  free  of  their 
mineral  impurities,  are  among  the  most  productive  in  the  territory. 

But  as  the  amount  of  water  available  for  purposes  of  irrigation  is  limited, 
the  greater  part  of  the  cultivated  lands  of  Utah  lie  at  the  western  base 
of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  and  along  the  streams  that  take  their  rise 
high  up  the  sides  of  that  range. 

The  north-eastern  part  of  the  territory,  having  a  more  regxilar  rainfall,  is 
adapted  to  grazing,  its  plains  being  covered  with  rich  nutritious  grasses. 

The  greater  part  of  Utah  is  treeless.  The  mountain  forests  consist 
chiefly  of  pine.     The  cottonwood  grows  along  the  banks  of  the  streams. 

Minerals.  —  Utah  is  rich  in  deposits  of  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and 
coal:  but  the  leading  product  of  the  mines  is  silver.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  the  territory  is  as  yet  largely  undeveloped,  and  it  is  probable 
that-  in  the  end  the  richest  mineral  treasures  will  be  found  to  be  among 
the  baser  metals  rather  than  in  gold  and  silver.  The  richest  mining 
districts  are  in  the  Wahsatch  Range. 

Iron  County  possesses  immense  stores  of  the  choicest  iron  ores.  The 
granites,  marbles,  limestones,  and  slates  are  also  of  the  best  quality, 
and  are  found  in  abundance  in  several  counties. 

The  mountain  streams,  in  addition  to  their  service  in  irrigation,  afford 
excellent  and  abundant  water-power  for  nmning  various  mills,  chiefly 
for  the  manufacture  of  flour,  woolen  goods,  etc. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

Agriculture  and  mining  are  the  chief  industries  of  the  people 
of  the  territory ;  but  considerable  numbers  are  also  engaged  in 
manufactures,  herding,  and  the  various  branches  of  commerce. 

Agriculture — The  leading  farm  products  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  vege- 
tables, and  fruit.  In  Southern  Utah  the  irrigated  valleys  produce 
cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  and  grapes  in  abundance. 

According  to  the  census  of  1880,  there  were  in  the  territor)-  9,452  farms, 
containing  655,524  acres,  nearly  two-thirds  of  which  were  improved. 
These  farms  were  valued  at  over  $14,000,000.  or  over  ?2o  per  acre.  It 
is  notable  that  the  average  size  of  these  farms  is  only  69  acres,  which 
is  below  the  average  in  any  other  state  or  territory. 

This  feature  is  a  peculiarity  of  Utah  farming,  by  which  a  few  acres  are 
carefully  watered  and  tended  like  a  garden,  thus  yielding  the  richest 
return  to  the  thrifty  husbandman. 

Market-gardening  for  the  supply  of  the  many  mining  camps  and  larger 
towns  in  the  territory  is  also  a  profitable  pursuit. 

The  hardy  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  temperate  zone  are  grown  in  the 
northern  districts,  while  the  sub-tropical  region  around  the  head  waters 
of  the  Virgin  River  yields  grapes,  oranges,  apricots,  and  other  fruits. 

Mining.  — In  1881  the  total  product  of  the  mines  of  the  territory  was 
estimated  to  exceed  $7,000,000.  Of  this,  by  far  the  greater  part  was 
silver.  Gold  is  mined  independently  to  some  extent,  and  also  in  con- 
nection with  silver.  Lead  is  an  incidental  product  of  silver-mining. 
Coal  is  chiefly  mined  for  manufacturing  and  railroad  uses.  Copper  is 
found  in  rich  deposits,  and  its  product  promises  to  be  very  large. 

Excellent  building-stone  is  found  in  many  localities,  and  good  quarries 
are  already  opened  up,  adequate  for  local  needs. 

Stock-raising  is  a  growing  industry  in  both  Eastern  and  Western  Utah. 
In  1880  the  value  of  live-stock  in  the  territory  was  over  $3,300,000,  but 
since  that  time  it  has  much  more  than  doubled  in  value. 

In  Eastern  Utah  stock-raising  on  an  extensive  scale  is  only  just  begun, 
but  that  region  is  capable  of  maintaining  large  herds  of  cattle. 

The  wool  product  of  1S80  was  nearly  1.000,000  pounds,  and  in  1883 
about  twice  that  quantity. 

The  manufactures  of  Utah  consist  chiefly  of  flour,  woolen  goods,  and. 
machiner)-,  together  with  the  varied  products  required  by  a  thrifty 
industrial  population. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  territory  that  there  is  hardly  an  essential  of 
comfortable  and  intelligent  living  which  its  people  do  not  produce  or 
manufacture  within  their  own  borders. 


UTAH. 


19 


Commerce.  — The  exports  of  the  territory  largely  exceed  the  imports, 
and  wealth  and  capital  are  constantly  increasing,  in  return  for  the 
product  of  her  soils,  mines,  and  herds. 

There  are  no  navigable  rivers  in  Utah,  but  the  railroad  shipping  facilities 
are  of  unusual  excellence.  It  is  connected  with  Nevada  and  California 
by  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  and  with  the  Mississippi  valley  by  the 
Union  Pacific.  It  also  has  an  important  connection  with  the  Colorado 
system  of  railroads  by  a  line  coming  into  the  territory  through  the  j 
Grand  River  valley,  and  extending  through  Emery  and  Utah  counties 
to  Salt  Lake  City. 

There  are  also  numerous  local  railroads  extending  into  the  agricultural 
and  mining  districts. 

The  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad  gives  the  territory  connection  with  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

Utah  has  a  territorial  government  under  laws  enacted  by  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  or  by  the  territorial  Legislature. 

The  chief  executive  officers  are  the  governor  and  secretary,  appointed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 

The  legislative  department  consists  of  two  houses,  —  the  Council,  consist- 
ing of  twelve  members ;  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  of  twenty- 
four  members.  They  are  elected  by  the  people  for  terms  of  two  years, 
and  meet  biennially  on  the  first  Monday  in  January  of  odd  years. 

The  judiciary  of  the  territory  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  (a  chief  justice 
and  two  associates),  district  courts  held  in  various  parts  of  the  territory 
by  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  courts  of  probate,  and  justices' 
courts. 

VIII.    EDUCATION. 

Utah  has  a  territorial  system  of  public  schools,  and  there  is 
no  general  school  fund  for  the  support  of  public  education. 

The  schools  are  supported  by  local  taxation  levied  by  each  district,  and 
by  a  territorial  tax  of  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent  distributed  to  the 
several  districts  on  the  basis  of  school  population. 

The  general  supervision  of  the  school  system  is  intrusted  to  a  territo- 
rial superintendent  of  schools,  assisted  by  a  county  superintendent 
and  a  county  board  of  school  examiners  in  each  county. 

The  territorial  university,  called  the  University  of  Deseret,  is  located  at 
Salt  Lake  City.  It  is  liberally  supported  from  the  public  funds,  and 
maintains  a  Normal  department  of  high  grade. 

Several  of  the  larger  towns  maintain  graded  schools:  and  among  the 
leading  private  institutions  are  Salt  Lake  Academy,  Rocky  Mountain 
Seminary,  and  St.  Mark's  School,  at  Salt  Lake  City;  Brigham  Young 
College,  at  Logan ;  and  Brigham  Young  Academy,  at  Provo. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

The  soil  of  Utah  was  part  of  the  extensive  territory  acquired 
by  the  United  States  from  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of  1848. 

When  California  was  organized  as  a  state  by  Act  of  Congress, 
in  1850,  the  newly  acquired  region  to  the  east,  lying  north  of 
the  37th  parallel,  was  organized  as  Utah  Territory. 

Utah  then  included,  in  addition  to  its  present  limits,  parts  of 
Nevada,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado.  It  has  occupied  its  present 
area  since  the  organization  of  Wyoming  Territory,  in  1 868. 

The  first  settlement  made  within  the  territory  was  at  Salt  Lake  City,  in 
1847.  On  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  June  of  that  year,  Brigham  Young, 
with  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  Mormon  followers,  reached  the  site 
of  the  present  city,  and  decided  to  found  there  a  place  of  refuge  for 
the  followers  of  his  faith.  They  had  successively  attempted  settle- 
ments in  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  Illinois,  but  wherever  they  had  settled 
they  were  subjected  to  severe  persecution. 

The  successful  migration  to  Utah,  and  the  subsequent  growth  and  pros- 
perity of  the  territory,  were  largely  due  to  the  skill  and  leadership  of  Brig- 
ham Young,  who  was  the  head  of  the  Mormon  Church  from  1844  to  1877. 

In  1880  the  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property 
was  nearly  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars,  which  was  greater 


than  that  of  any  other  territory.  The  amount  of  taxation  de- 
voted to  education  and  public  improvements  was  also  greater 
than  that  in  any  other  territory  in  the  Union. 

X.    POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

Utah  contains  twenty-four  counties,  twenty  of  which  are 
organized.  Among  the  more  important  cities  and  towns  are 
the  following :  — 

Salt  Lake  City  (20,768),  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  the 
territory,  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Utah,  12  miles  from 
the  southern  shore  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  under  the  shadow 
of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains. 

The  city  is  finely  laid  out  with  broad  streets  handsomely  shaded.  The 
yards  and  gardens  in  the  residence  part  of  the  town  are  spacious  and 
elegantly  maintained,  being  irrigated  by  streams  of  water  running  on 
either  side  of  the  public  streets. 

The  city  is  the  chief  center  and  seat  of  government  of  the  Mormon 
Church,  which  has  a  large  membership  throughout  Utah  and  the  adja- 
cent territories.  Among  its  most  prominent  features  are  the  temple 
(not  yet  completed),  the  tabernacle,  and  a  number  of  fine  private  build- 
ings. 

Salt  Lake  City  is  the  metropolis  of  trade  for  the  territory,  and  the  center 
of  an  excellent  system  of  railways.  The  traffic  of  the  Union  and 
Central  Pacific  and  the  Utah  and  Northern  roads  comes  into  the  city 
over  the  Utah  Central  from  Ogden,  and  there  is  an  important  system 
of  territorial  roads  connecting  the  city  with  nearly  every  fertile  valley 
and  mining  camp  in  the  territory. 

Ogden  (6,096),  near  Great  Salt  Lake,  is  the  county  seat  of 
Weber  County,  and  the  second  largest  town  in  the  territory. 
It  is  the  point  of  junction  of  the  Union  and  Central  Pacific 
railroads,  running  east  and  west,  and  also  of  the  Utah  and 
Northern  and  the  Utah  Central,  running  north  and  south. 

The  city  is  the  center  of  a  fine  trade,  and  is  handsomely  and  substan- 
tially built.  It  has  schools  of  a  superior  character,  and  large  and 
growing  manufacturing  interests. 


Logan  —  the  county  seat  of  Cache  Coutlly,  is  the 
trade  center  of  the  extreme  north-eastern 
part  of  the  territory.  It  has  considerable 
manufactures  and  excellent  water-power.  It 
is  in  the  center  of  a  fine  wheat,  stock,  and 
dairy  region. 
It  has  excellent  public  and  private  schools,  and 
is  the  seat  of  Brigham  Young  College. 

Provo —  county  scat  of  Utah  County,  is  situated 
near  the  foot  of  Provo  valley,  about  48  miles 
from  Salt  Lake  City.  It  has  excellent  water- 
power,  which  is  used  mainly  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  woolen  goods.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Utah  Insane  Asylum  and  of  Brigham  Young 
Academy. 

Springville  —  in  Utah  County,  is  the  terminus 
of  a  narrow-gauge  railroad  running  to  the 
Pleasant  valley  coal-mines.  It  has  a  large 
mercantile  and  shipping  business,  and  is  a 
rapidly  growing  place. 

Manti  — county  seat  of  San  Pete  County,  is  the 
trade  center  of  the  San  Pete  valley,  a  rich 
farming,  grazing,  and  dairy  region. 

Mount  Pleasant  and  Ephraim  City  are  also 
important  business  towns  in  the  San  Pete 
valley. 


Brigham  City  —  county  seat  of  Box  Elder 
County,  near  the  northern  shores  of  Great 
Salt  Lake,  is  an  important  trading  town  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  territory.  It  has 
considerable  manufactures  of  woolen  goods 
and  leather. 

St.  George  —  county  seat  of  Washington  County, 
is  the  chief  trading  center  in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Virgin  River.  It  is  the  largest  town 
in  the  territory  outside  the  borders  of  the 
Great  Basin.  Silver  Reef  is  the  leading 
mining  town  in  this  region. 

Park  City  and  Colville  —  in  Summit  County,  are 
situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad,  and  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the 
mining  of  coal  for  railroad  and  manufactur- 
ing purposes. 

Corinne  —  on  Bear  River,  is  an  important  ship- 
ping and  trading  point  on  the  line  of  the 
Central  Pacific  Railroad. 

Beaver  City  —  county  seat  of  Beaver  County,  is 
the  chief  town  and  business  center  in  the 
rich  valley  of  the  same  name.  The  county 
is  mainly  devoted  to  farming  and  stock- 
raising.  In  the  amount  of  wool  product  it 
ranks  third  in  the  territory. 


The  following  towns,  each  having  between  1,000  and  2,500 
inhabitants  in  1880,  are  worthy  of  mention:  — 


Hyrum,  Richmond,  Smithfield,  and  Wella- 

ville  —  thriving  towns  in  Cache  County; 
KaysviUe  —  a  shipping  point  and  trading  center 

in  Davis  County ; 
Nephl  —  county   seat  of  Juab  County,  and   the 

chief  town  in  the  fertile  Juab  valley: 
Fairview  —  in  San  Pete  County,  commanding  a 

wonderful  view  of  the  lofty  Mount  Nebo; 
Richfield  —  county  seat   of  Sevier  County,   and 

trading  center  of  the  Upper  Sevier  valley ; 


Grantsvilte  and  Tooele  —  in  Tooele  County,  the 

latter  the  county  seat ; 
American  Fork,  Lehi,  Pleasant  Grove,  and 

Spanish  Fork  —  thriving  railroad  towns  in 

L^tah  County,  on  the  shores  of  Utah  Lake; 

and 
Heber  City  —  county  seat  of  Wahsatch  County, 

and  chief  commercial  point  in  the  Upper 

Provo  valley. 


NEW  MEXICO. 


21 


NEW    MEXICO. 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

Situation.  —  What  is  the  shape  of  New  Mexico  ?  Accord- 
ing to  the  scale  of  miles,  what  is  the  length  of  one  side  of  it.' 
What  state  on  the  north  ?  What  state  forms  most  of  the  east- 
ern boundary  and  a  part  of  the  southern  ?  What  country  on 
the  south  ?  What  division  Ijounds  it  on  the  west.'  What  par- 
allel crosses  it  near  the  middle  ?  What  degree  of  longitude 
would  divide  this  territory  into  two  equal  parts .' 

Surface  —  What  portions  are  most  moun- 
tainous .'     What  general   mountain   range 
crosses  it,  and  in  what  direction  ?     What 
minor  ranges  are  there  ?   Where  are  the 
more    level    portions  ?      The    Staked 
Plain .'     What  is  the  general  slope  of 
the  land  as   shown   by  the   flowing 
waters  ? 

Rivers.  —  What  two  principal  riv- 
ers cross  New  Mexico  .'  Describe 
their  course.  Which  is  the  larger? 
What  other  rivers  have  head  waters 
here  ?  What  parts  appear  to  be 
well  watered  ?  What  portions  lack 
streams  ? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  How 
many  counties  in  New  Mexico  ? 
Through  what  counties  does  the  Rio 
Grande  flow  ?  What  important  places 
on  this  river  ?  Name  the  capital, 
and  describe  its  location.  From  the 
map,  what  counties  appear  to  be  most  thickly  settled.' 
regions  are  most  of  the  cities  and  towns  ? 


ON    THE    UPPER    RIO   GRANDE. 


In  what  natural ! 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area.  122,580  square  miles.     Population  (1880),  119,565.] 

I.    SITUATION  AND    EXTENT. 

The  Territory  of  New  Mexico  is  situated  in  the  south-west- 
ern portion  of  the  United  States,  its  western  portion  being 
traversed  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  while  its  eastern  extends 
through  a  series  of  plateaus  and  tablelands  into  the  great 
grazing  regions  which  occupy  so  much  of  the  western  slope 
of  the  Mississippi  valley. 

It  is  bounded  by  Colorado  on  the  north,  in  latitude  37°  north;  by  the 
Indian  Territory  and  Texas  on  the  east;  and  by  Arizona  on  the  west, 
lying  between  the  103d  and  109th  degrees  of  longitude  west  from 
Greenwich ;  and  on  the  south  by  Texas  and  Mexico  in  an  irregular 
line. 

New  Mexico  is  about  370  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  while  from  north 
to  south  it  is  about  335  miles.  It  ranks  fifth  in  size,  and  forty-first  in 
population,  among  all  the  states  and  territories. 

II.    SURFACE. 

The  surface  presents  all  the  variety  of  mountain,  plateau, 
and  valley,  the  larger  portion  being  a  mountainous  plateau. 

The  Santa  F^,  Las  Vegas,  and  Taos  ranges,  forming  a  part  of  the  main 
axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  occupy  a  central  position  in  the  north 
end  of  the  territory  west  of  the  Rio  Grande  River,  while  south  of 


them  are  found  the  Oscura,  Organ,  San  Andres,  Sacramento, 
and  Guadaloupe  ranges.  West  of  tlie  Rio  (jrande  River,  the 
Zufii,  Datil,  Tularosa,  Mimbres,  and  Pinos  Altos  ranges  are 
the  most  important.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  territory, 
together  with  much  that  lies  up  between  the  mountain  ranges, 
consists  of  extensive  plateaus,  where  excellent  native  grasses 
abound,  and  where  the  principal  pastoral  interests  of  the  ter- 
ritory flourish. 

III.    DRAINAGE. 

New  Mexico  sends  her  waters  to  either  ocean. 

The  Rio  Grande,  which  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  of  Colorado, 
flows  south  through  the  territory  draining  its  central  portion,  and 
passing  out  as  the  boundary  between  Texas  and  .Mexico.  It  receives 
into  its  channel  a  great  many  small  streams,  the  largest  of  which  are 
the  Rio  Chama  and  Rio  Puerco.  Numerous  small  streams  which 
drain  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  territory  form  the  Canadian,  and 
find  their  way  through  Texas,  the  Indian  Territory,  and  Arkansas, 
into  the  Mississippi  River  as  the  Arkansas. 

The  south-eastern  portion  of  the  territory  is  drained  by  the  Rio  Pecos, 
which  receives  innumerable  small  tributaries,  and  joins  the  Rio  Grande 
after  flowing  through  the  western  part  of  Texas. 

The  waters  of  the  western  part  of  the  territory  are  tributary  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  through  the  Colorado  River,  which  they  reach  by  way 
of  the  head  waters  of  the  San  Juan  from  the  extreme  north-western 
corner,  the  Little  Colorado  from  the  central  portions,  and  the  Gila 
from  the  south-western  corner,  and  through  some  other  unimportant 
streams. 

IV.   CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  New  Mexico  is  remarkable  for  its  uniformity. 
The  summers  are  moderate,  and  extremely  hot  weather  is  of 
rare  occurrence,  while  the  winters  are  neither  long  nor  severe. 

The  atmosphere  is  pure  and  dry.  This  serves  to  moderate  the  ex- 
tremes of  cold  in  the  higher  localities,  and  of  the  heat  in  the  plains 
and  valleys.  The  rainy  season,  which  usually  lasts  during  July  and 
August,  is  not  a  continuous  rain,  but  is  rather  a  season  of  frequent 
showers,  which  usually  continue  for  a  few  hours,  with  periods  of  sun- 

\ 


22 


NEW   MEXICO. 


shine.  The  atmosphere  is  heavily  charged  with  electricity,  and  tele- 
graph and  other  electric  wires  are  often  affected.  Owing  to  atmos- 
pheric influences,  objects  at  a  distance  appear  much  nearer  than  they 
really  are.     All  the  climatic  influences  tend  to  health  and  comfort. 

V.    RESOURCES. 

The  material  natural  resources  of  New  Mexico  are  of  great 
importance,  though  as  yet  they  have  not  been  so  far  developed 
as  to  make  their  value  known  to  the  commercial  world. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  a  rich  and  sandy  loam,  capable  of 
producing  excellent  crops ;  and,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  territory 
is  by  no  means  an  agricultural  country,  there  are  millions  of  acres 
which,  with  irrigation,  can  be  made  rich  and  productive. 

Minerals.  —  Important  discoveries  of  the  precious  minerals  have  been 
made,  and  enough  has  been  developed  to  show  that  the  territory  is  rich 
in  gold  and  silver.  The  most  important  mines  have  been  opened  in  the 
south-western  portion  of  the  territory  in  the  vicinity  of  Deming,  Silver 
City,  and  Lordsburg;  and  gold  and  silver  are  found  in  all  the  usual 
formations  peculiar  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Important  mines  are 
also  worked  in  the  central  part  of  the  territory  in  the  regions  around 
Socorro,  and  also  in  the  north-west  in  the  San  Juan  region. 

Several  varieties  of  iron  ores  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory. 

Important  mines  of  copper  have  been  discovered,  and  are  already 
worked  to  advantage  in  many  parts,  notably  in  the  vicinity  of  Santa 
Rita  in  the  south-west,  and  Glorieta  in  the  north-central  portions  of 
the  territory. 

An  excellent  article  of  coal  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  territory  in 
abundance.  Important  mines  are  worked  in  the  northern  part  near 
Raton,  in  the  vicinity  of  Socorro  in  the  central  part,  and  in  the  ex- 
treme western   border  near  Gallup  and    Defiance. 

Among  other  geological  products  of  the  territory  may  be  mentioned 
lead,  salt,  soda,  sulphur,  plumbago,  mica,  gypsum,  cement,  granite, 
and  building-stone  in  great  variety. 

Forests.  —  The  eastern  portion  of  the  territory  is  mostly  free  from 
timber ;  but  the  western  part,  including  the  north-central,  has  a  good 
supply  for  home  requirements. 

Scenery The  natural  scenery  throughout  the  territory  is  very  fine, 

presenting  every  variety  of  wildness  and  beauty. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

At  the  present  time  New  Mexico  is  pre-eminently  a  stock- 
raising  region,  but  the  mining  and  commercial  interests  are 
being  rapidly  developed. 

Stock-raising.  —  The  range  is  ample  and  generally  well  watered,  and 
affords  feed  for  cattle,  with  a  little  shifting,  the  year  round.  Vast 
herds  roam  at  will,  with  a  few  watchers ;  while  in  many  localities  the 
ranges  are  inclosed,  and  cattle  are  kept  well  in  hand,  and  an  effort  is 
made  to  improve  the  stock  as  well  as  to  get  them  ready  for  the  market. 

There  are  localities  where  the  range  is  sufficient,  but  where  the  water  is 
scarce ;  but  efforts  are  being  made  to  provide  for  this  deficiency  by 
irrigation  and  by  artesian  wells. 

Sheep-raising  is  an  important  interest;  and  this  territory  has  more  sheep 
in  its  ranges  than  any  other  state  or  territory  in  the  Union,  and  yields 
the  greatest  product  of  wool.  While  this  business  is  considered  a 
little  less  certain  in  its  results,  it  is  more  profitable  than  cattle-raising, 
on  account  of  the  quicker  returns  from  an  investment. 

Mining.  —  The  mining  interests  of  the  territory  embrace  gold  and  silver 
mines,  yielding  large  quantities  of  ore,  and  affording  employment  to 
thousands  of  men.  Coal-mining  is  also  an  important  industry,  and  the 
labor  and  capital  employed  are  very  great :  while  the  copper,  iron,  and 
other  mines  all  tend  to  enhance  the  mining  value  of  the  territory, 
which  is  fast  assuming  importance  among  the  mining  regions  of  the 
west. 

Farming.  —  In  the  rich  valleys  there  are  many  farms  where  good  atten- 
tion secures  excellent  returns.  Corn,  wheat,  and  garden  products  are 
the  principal  crops. 


Manufactures.  —  The  most  important  manufacturing  interests  of  the 
territory  are  those  connected  with  mining  business  in  the  way  of 
smelters,  etc.,  for  the  treatment  of  the  ores  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
and  with  the  railroad  interests  through  machine-shops,  etc.;  thouo^h 
there  are  other  manufacturing  interests  of  no  mean  importance,  among 
which  may  be  named  the  production  of  jewelry  of  a  peculiar  style, 
noted  for  its  richness  and  beauty. 

Commerce.  —  The  commerce  of  the  territory  consists  in  the  marketing 
of  its  cattle  and  wool  products,  and  the  results  of  its  mining  interests, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  purchase  of  the  goods,  wares,  and  mer- 
chandise demanded  by  her  people,  on  the  other. 

The  railroad  facilities  of  the  territory  embrace  connections  with  the 
Pacific  Ocean  through  California  and  Mexico,  over  four  different 
routes,  and  with  the  Atlantic  and  the  great  stock-consuming  regions 
of  the  north  and  east  by  as  many  more.  As  has  been  the  case  in 
many  other  localities,  the  railroads  have  led  the  way  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  and  much  of  the  thrift  and  prosperity  of  this 
region  is  due  to  them. 

Lumbering.  —  The  lumber  interests  have  attracted  capital  from  the  older 
lumbering  regions  of  the  north ;  and  large  mills  are  in  operation  in 
several  localities,  notably  in  the  plateaus  and  foot-hills  of  the  San 
Francisco  Mountains,  and  in  some  ranges  of  the  continental  divide. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  territory  of  New  Mexico,  like  all  the  other  territories, 
is  largely  governed  under  the  provisions  of  the  United  States 
statutes. 

The  governor  and  other  territorial  officers  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  and  are  paid 
out  of  the  United  States  treasury. 

The  local  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  territorial  Assembly,  com- 
posed of  two  branches, —  a  House  of  Representatives  and  a  Legisla- 
tive Council,  —  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  the  people  for 
two  years.     Sessions  are  held  biennially  in  the  even  years. 

The  judiciary  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court  with  three  judges,  district 
courts,  circuit  courts,  and  other  courts  of  inferior  jurisdiction.  These 
officers  are  charged  with  the  administration  of  justice  under  the  laws 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  territory. 

VIII.    EDUCATION. 

The  educational  system  of  New  Mexico  is  not  yet  fully 
developed  ;  and,  as  in  all  territories,  there  is  no  public  school 
fund.  There  is  a  territorial  organization,  but  the  more  impor- 
tant functions  of  the  educational  work  devolve  upon  "  county 
boards  of  commissioners." 

These  commissioners  are  elected  by  the  people,  and  have  general 
charge  of  the  public  school  interests  of  their  respective  counties, 
under  the  laws  of  the  territory.  In  most  cases,  schools  are  provided 
.  in  every  district  where  the  school  population  is  large  enough  to  war- 
rant it.  In  the  cities  and  towns  there  are  very  fair  accommodations, 
and  in  several  instances,  superior  facilities  are  afforded. 

In  addition  to  the  public  schools,  there  are  numerous  private  and  denomi- 
national schools,  which  are  generally  well  supported  and  patronized. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

The  history  of  New  Mexico  is  the  history  of  three  civiliza- 
tions, and  no  portion  of  our  country  is  so  rich  in  traditional 
lore  as  this.  While  it  is  among  the  newest  in  settlement  and 
material  advancement,  under  our  present  civilization,  it  is  the 
oldest,  in  point  of  what  has  been,  of  all  the  regions  of  our  great 
republic. 

Three  hundred  years  ago  the  Spaniards  made  settlements  in  New 
Mexico,  planting  their  banners  upon  the  ruins  of  a  civilization  which 
had  flourished  and  decayed  before  them.  The  Zunis,  from  whom  they 
wrested  the  territory,  had  peopled  a  region  which  yields  to  us  some  of 


NEW   MEXICO. 


23 


the  richest  fields  for  antiquarian  research  on  our  continent,  and  which, 
for  interesting  study,  is  not  surpassed  by  the  classic  regions  of  the 
Nile. 
The  principal  part  of  this  territory  came  under  control  of  the  United 
States  through  the  "Treaty  of  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,"  Feb.  2,  1848,  as 
the  result  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  by  cession  from  the  state  of 
Texas  in  1850.  The  Gadsden  Purchase,  in  1853,  completed  the  trans- 
fer of  a  portion  of  the  south-western  corner  of  the  territory. 
New  Mexico  was  organized  as  a  territory  Sept.  9,  1850,  when  it  included 
much  of  the  territory  now  embraced  in  Colorado,  Arizona,  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  territory  has  occupied  its  present  limits  since  1863. 
For  twenty-five  years  the  agricultural  and  stock-raising  interests  grew 
steadily  but  slowly ;  and  the  most  important  hold  the  United  States 
had  upon  the  country  was  through  the  treaty  with  the  Mexican 
Government,  and  the  presence  of  a  few  soldiers.  With  the  deveIoi> 
ment  of  its  vast  mining  interests,  and  the  extension  of  railroad  lines 
in  all  directions  through  its  limits,  the  territory  has  taken  on  a  new 
life,  and  is  rapidly  becoming  an  enterprising  and  populous  modern 
community. 

X.    POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 
New  Mexico  contains   fourteen   counties  and   the  following 
principal  cities  and  towns  :  — 

Santa  F6  (7,000),  the  capital  city  and  metropolis  of  New 
Me.xico,  is  situated  a  little  north  of  the  center  of  the  territory. 
Since  its  occupation  by  the  Spaniards  in  1583,  until  within  a 
few  years,  it  has  been  important  only  as  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment and  as  a  military,  outfitting,  and  trading  post. 

The  streets  are  generally  narrow,  and  the  older  houses  are  built  of 
adobe,  or  sun-dried  bricks,  among  the  most  interesting  of  which  is  the 
Palace,  said  to  have  been  built  in  1581,  and  which  has  served  as  the 
home  of  the  local  ruler  ever  since.  The  church  of  San  Miguel,  built 
in  1640,  and  now  probably  the  oldest  church  in  the  United  States,  is 
still  in  use. 

With  the  advent  of  the  railroad  and  the  public  school,  Santa  Fd  has 
begun  to  show  signs  of  a  new  life ;  and  churches  and  other  public 
buildings,  as  well  as  business  houses,  have  sprung  into  existence,  and 
the  legends  of  the  past  are  being  obliterated  by  the  unmistakable  signs 
of  progress.  Surrounded  by  a  mining  region  of  untold  wealth,  and  a 
large  area  of  farming  land,  which,  with  irrigation  and  work,  yields 
great  and  increasing  crops,  Santa  F6  has  at  her  doors  every  thing 
necessary  to  make  her  a  great  city.  Water-works,  gas-works,  and  a 
fire  department  are  already  in  existence,  and  the  city  is  the  center  of 
considerable  manufactures  and  an  extensive  trade. 

Albuquerque  (8,000)  is  beautifully  situated  in  Bernalillo 
County,  in  the  central  part  of  the  territory,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  fine  farming  and  stock-raising  country.  The  old  portion 
of  this  city  dates  back  to  the  early  Spanish  settlements,  and  is 
principally  built  of  adobe.  The  new  town  was  laid  out  in  1880, 
and  is  a  marvel  of  growth  and  prosperity. 

It  has  important  railroad  facilities,  which  have  done  much  in  the  way  of 
developing  the  resources  of  the  town  and  the  surrounding  country. 
It  is  supplied  with  gas  and  water  works,  newspapers,  churches,  schools, 
banks,  hotels,  and  a  fine  opera-house.  Extensive  railway-shops  are 
located  here ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  business  which  these  shops  con- 
trol, it  has  a  prosperous  trade  with  the  surrounding  agricultural  com- 
munity. It  is  an  important  shipping-point,  and  has  ample  facilities 
for  the  transaction  of  a  large  and  rapidly  growing  business. 
Anton  Chico,  situated  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Rio  Pecos,  is  the  center 
of  a  fine  farming  and  grazing  community. 

Bernalillo  is  the  county  seat  of  Bernalillo  County,  and  is  situated  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  south-west  of  Santa  Fe,  in  the  center  of  a  splendid  agricultural 


community.  It  is  an  old  Mexican  town,  and  has  for  many  years  been  one 
of  the  prominent  towns  in  this  region  of  the  country,  owing  to  the  wealth 
and  influence  of  her  people.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  fruit-growing  dis- 
trict; and  peaches,  apples,  apricots,  and  grapes  of  excellent  quality  are 
produced  in  abundance.  It  is  important  as  an  outfitting  point  for  adjacent 
mining  regions. 

Cimmaron,  formerly  the  county  seat  of  Colfax  County,  is  a  beautiful 
village  in  the  interior,  twenty-two  miles  from  the  railroad. 

Deming  is  situated  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  territory,  at  the 
terminus  of  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fd  Railroad,  and  at  its  junction 
with  the  Southern  Pacific.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  stock-raising  country, 
and  is  the  center  of  one  of  the  most  promising  mining  districts  in  the 
territory.  It  has  a  good  trade  across  the  border  with  Mexico,  as  well  as 
with  the  neighboring  mining  camps.  A  United  States  custom-house  is 
located  here. 

Fernandez  de  Taos  is  located  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  near  the 
northern  end  of  the  territory,  and  is  one  of  the  ancient  settlements  of  the 
territory,  surrounded  with  much  that  is  of  interest  to  the  antiquarian  and 
the  historian.  It  is  the  county  seat  of  Taos  County,  and  a  wealthy  and 
prosperous  town.  It  was  the  home  of  the  famous  frontiersman.  Kit  Car- 
son, whose  grave  may  be  found  in  the  adjacent  cemetery. 

Las  Crusces  is  one  of  the  chief  towns  in  the  southern  part  of  the  terri- 
tory. It  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  is  noted  for 
the  extensive  and  beautiful  orchards  and  vineyards  by  which  it  is  sur- 
rounded, as  well  as  for  the  value  of  the  mining  interests  which  are  tributary 
to  it.     It  has  also  a  flourishing  business  with  the  adjacent  country. 

Las  Lunas  is  the  county  seat  of  Valencia  County,  in  the  central  part  of 
the  territory.  It  is  one  of  the  old  IVlexican  towns,  and  is  surrounded  by 
a  fine  stock-raising  region,  rich  in  flocks  and  herds. 

Las  Vegas,  owing  to  its  railway  machine-shops,  etc.,  is  an  important 
station  on  the  great  southern  route.  The  town  is  well  built  up,  has  water- 
works, gas-works,  street-railway,  newspapers,  banks,  hotels,  churches,  and 
schools.  There  are  many  important  mining  regions  in  the  adjacent  moun- 
tains, while  the  valleys  produce  excellent  crops  of  grain  and  vegetables. 
The  famous  Las  Vegas  Hot  Springs  are  a  few  miles  distant.  The  old 
town  of  Las  Vegas  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  territory,  and  was  an  impor- 
tant point  on  the  old  "  Santa  F6  Trail." 

Lordsburg  is  a  thriving  mining  town  in  the  south-western  corner  of  the 
territory.  The  most  productive  mines  in  the  vicinity  are  those  of  Shake- 
speare and  Pyramid  City. 

Mesilla,  the  county  seat  of  Dofia  Afia  County,  is  situated  on  the  oppo- 
site bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  a  few  miles  below  Las  Crusces,  and,  like 
its  neighbor,  is  noted  for  its  orchards  and  vineyards. 

Raton  is  an  important  town  in  the  northern  end  of  the  territory.  It 
has  excellent  water-works,  hotels,  banks,  churches,  and  schools.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  fine  grazing  region,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  the  supplies 
required  by  the  stockmen.  Important  gold-mines  are  located  in  the  vicinity, 
while  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  plumbago  are  also  found.  Coal-mining 
is  the  leading  business  interest.  Railway-shops  also  employ  a  large  number 
of  people. 

Rincon  is  the  junction  of  two  important  railroads,  and  is  a  prosperous 
town  surrounded  by  Mexican  settlements,  engaged  in  agriculture  and  stock- 
raising. 

Silver  City,  the  county  seat  of  Grant  County,  is  an  important  town. 
The  business  is  largely  with  the  adjacent  mines.  It  is  well  built,  having 
several  banks,  numerous  large  wholesale  stores,  besides  stamp-mills,  planing- 
mills,  hotels,  churches,  and  public  schools. 

Socorro,  the  county  seat  of  Socorro  County,  is  an  important  mining  center, 
many  of  the  best  mines  in  the  territory  lying  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  has  large 
and  prosperous  outfitting  stores,  fine  churches,  and  good  schools.  Exten- 
sive stamp-mills  and  smelting-works  are  established  here. 

Springer,  the  county  seat  of  Colfax  County,  is  a  prosperous  town  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  stock  region,  and 
has  a  good  trade,  supplying  a  large  section  of  country. 


24 


ARIZONA. 


ARIZONA. 


IN   THE  GRAND  CANON. 


Situation.  —  What  division 
forms  the  northern  boundarj-  of 
Arizona  .'  What  the  eastern  ? 
What  countrj-  bounds  it  on  the 
south  ?  What  states  on  the  west  ? 
What  important  river  bounds  it 
on  the  west  ?  What  is  its  gener- 
al shape?  What  parallel  marked 
on  the  map  crosses  the  southern 
part  ?  According  tq  the  scale  of 
miles,  what  is  the  distance  across 
it  from  north  to  south  ?     From  east  to  west.' 

Surface.  —  What  is  the  general  character  of  its  surface .'  Name  some 
of  the  mountains  in  the  south-east.  In  tlie  central  region.  Is  the  average 
elevation  of  Arizona  high,  or  low  ?  What  celebrated  cafion  is  partly  in  this 
section  ? 

Rivers.  —  What  river  system  drains  this  region .'  What  are  the  two 
principal  branches  here  ?  Give  the  location  and  describe  the  course  of  the 
larger  one.     The  smaller  one.     Are  there  many  small  streams  ? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  What  counties  in  the  northern  part  ?  How  many 
and  what  counties  in  the  southern  half?  WTiich  county  is  the  largest  in 
extent?  The  smallest?  Name  and  locate  the  capital.  Judging  from  the 
map,  do  most  of  the  people  live  among  the  mountains,  or  on  the  plains  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 

lArea,  113,020  square  miles.     Population,  41,580.] 
I.    SITUATION   AND   EXTENT. 

Situation.  —  Arizona  lies  between  Mexico  on  the  south  and 
Utah  on  the  north.  It  is  included  between  the  parallels  of 
31°  37'  and  37°  north  latitude,  and  between  the  meridians  of 
109°  3'  and  1 14°  25'  west  longitude. 

Extent.  —  In  shape  it  is  nearly  a  square,  —  370  miles  long 
north  and  south,  and  350  miles  wide  east  and  west.  In  area  it 
is  about  two-thirds  as  large  as  California 


II.    SURFACE. 

Arizona  is  a  succession  of 
tablelands  and  mesas,  rising 
in  successive  platforms  from 
a  few  hundred  feet  in  the 
south-west,  along  the  Colo- 
rado, to  an  altitude  of  7,000 
feet  in  the  north. 

These  great  plateaus  are  every- 
where crossed  by  a  network  of 
mountain  ridges,  more  than 
fifty  in  number,  with  numer- 
ous intervening  valleys. 
The  highest  summit  is  Hum- 
phrey's Peak  (12,561  feet),  in 
the  San  Francisco  Mountains, 
near  the   central  part  of  the 

territory.     The  largest  valley  is  that  of  the  Gila  River,  and  the  most 

stupendous  cafton  that  of  the  Colorado. 

III.    DRAINAGE. 

Almost  the  entire  area  of  Arizona  is  drained  by  the  Colorado 
River  and  its  tributaries.  This  great  river  is  one  of  the  longest 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  which  it  takes  its  rise  by  two 
branches  called  the  Grand  and  Green  rivers.  These  rivers 
unite  in  Utah,  and  thence  the  Colorado  flows  by  a  generally 
south-west  course  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  Including  Green 
River,  the  larger  of  these  head  streams,  it  is  about  1,800  miles 
in  length.  Its  waters  assume  a  reddish  color  from  the  falling 
of  the  rains  upon  a  soil  of  red  clay :  hence  the  name  Colorado 
or  Colored  River. 

The  Colorado  has  worn  through  the  soft  strata  of  sandstone  a.  narrow 
canon  to  the  depth  of  from  2,000  to  5,000  feet.  This  dark  and  gloomy 
river  gorge,  400  miles  long,  with  its  stupendous  walls,  is  noted  for  its 
grand  and  desolate  scenery. 

The  Gila  River,  the  largest  tributary-  of  the  Colorado,  500  miles  long, 
d/ains  the  southern  section  of  the  territory.  It  is  a  shallow  stream 
during  the  dr\-  season,  but  in  the  season  of  rains  discharges  a  great 
volume  of  muddy  and  yellow  water. 

A  few  insignificant  streams  on  the  extreme  southern  border  of  the  terri- 
tory flow  through  Mexico  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  With  this  ex- 
ception, the  Colorado  receives  the  entire  drainage  of  Arizona. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

Arizona  has  a  dry  climate.  The  south-western  part  of  the 
territory  is  the  driest  and  hottest  region  in  the  United  States. 
In  the  low  and  sandy  valley  of  the  Colorado,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Yuma,  the  summer  heat  is  intense,  the  thermometer  frequently 
rising  to  115°  in  the  shade. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  in  this  section  rarely  reaches  three  inches. 
The  elevated  mesas  and  the  mountain  regions  of  central  and  eastern 
Arizona  have  cooler  summers,  more  abundant  rains,  and  colder  winters. 
The  rains  fall  chiefly  in  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September. 


ARIZONA. 


25 


V.    RESOURCES  AND   INDUSTRIES. 

Minerals.  —  Arizona  is  rich  in  mines  of  silver,  gold,  copper, 
coali  and  salt.  Mining  is  the  chief  industrial  pursuit.  The 
development  of  the  mineral  resources  is  recent;  but  in  1882 
the  total  product  of  the  mines  of  Arizona  was  estimated  at 

$  1 2,000,CXX). 

Agriculture.  —  The  greater  part  of  Arizona  is  too  dry  for 
tillage.  The  valley  lands,  when  irrigated  by  water  from  the 
rivers,  produce  grain,  Indian-corn,  beans,  vegetables,  and  fruits, 
—  such  as  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  oranges,  lemons,  and 
figs. 

The  cultivated  lands  mostly  lie  along  the  Gila  River,  and  in  the  small 
mountain  valleys  of  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  the  territory. 

The  mountain  slopes  and  valleys  afford  good  natural  pasturage,  and  stock- 
raising  is  an  important  pursuit. 

Forests  and  Vegetation.  —  In  the  central  and  eastern  parts 
of  Arizona  there  are  extensive  forests  of  coniferous  trees,  such 
as  pines,  cedars,  and  junipers;  but,  as  a  whole,  Arizona  is 
sparsely  wooded. 

On  the  arid  mesas,  or  level  tablelands,  the  characteristic  vegetation  is  the 
sage-brush,  cactus,  prickly-pear,  and  the  maguey  or  century  plant. 

Among  the  peculiar  trees  is  the  mesquiu,  which  bears  a  bean-like  seed, 
largely  used  by  the  Indians  for  food. 

In  the  elevated  valleys  of  the  mountains  the  potato  is  indigenous. 

Commerce.  —  The  trade  of  Arizona  consists  chiefly  in  the 
export  of  bullion  and  ores,  and  the  import  of  bread-stuffs  and 
manufactured  articles. 

The  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  crosses  the  southern  part  of  the  territory, 
connecting  it  with  California  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Missis- 
sippi valley.  This  line  of  road,  and  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  which 
crosses  the  territory  east  and  west  near  its  central  part,  give  to  Arizona 
excellent  facilities  for  exchanging  the  products  of  her  mines,  and  the 
increase  of  her  fields  and  herds,  for  the  manufactures  of  the  east.  The 
recent  progress  of  the  territory  is  largely  due  to  these  advantages  for 
ready  and  direct  transportation.  The  Colorado  River  is  navigable  for 
small  steamers  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Grand  Cafion. 


Manufactures, 
lumber  and  flour. 


■The  manufactures   are  limited  chiefly  to 


VI.    GOVERNMENT. 


Arizona  has  a  territorial  government,  organized  by  Act  of 
Congress  in  1863. 

The  chief  executive  officers  are  the  governor  and  the  secretary,  who  are 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate. 

The  Legislature  is  elected  by  the  people  at  the  biennial  territorial  election, 
and  meets  once  in  two  years  in  regular  session,  on  the  ist  of  January 
of  odd  years.  The  session  is  limited  to  sixty  days;  and  both  senators 
and  representatives  are  elected  for  terms  of  two  years. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  the  judges  of  which  are 
appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  a  term 
of  four  years. 

VII.    EDUCATION. 

The  territory  has  an  organized  system  of  public  schools, 
which  are  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  elected  by  the  people. 

The  schools  of  Tucson,  Prescott,  and  other  mining  towns,  are 
in  good  condition  and  liberally  sustained. 


VIII.    HISTORY. 

Down  to  the  close  of  the  Mexican  war  all  of  Arizona  be- 
longed to  Mexico.  By  the  treaty  of  1848  the  part  north  of  the 
Gila  became  the  property  of  the  United  States;  and  in  1853 
the  balance  of  the  territory  was  acquired  by  means  of  the 
Gadsden  Purchase. 

According  to  the  treaty  of  1848,  the  boundary  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States  was  to  be  the  Rio  Grande,  from  its  mouth  to  New- 
Mexico  ;  thence  to  the  river  Gila ;  that  river  to  its  junction  with  the 
Colorado ;  then  in  a  straight  line  to  the  Pacific,  at  a  point  ten  miles 
south  of  San  Diego.  Soon  afterwards  the  United  States  acquired  by 
the  Gadsden  Purchase  a  considerable  strip  of  the  territory  of  Northern 
Mexico,  including  a  good  part  of  Arizona. 

Until  1863  the  territory  formed  a  part  of  Utah.  In  that 
year  it  was  separately  organized  by  Act  of  Congress ;  but  its 
progress  was  very  much  retarded  by  the  hostile  Apaches  and 
other  savage  Indian  tribes.  With  the  extension  of  railroads 
into  and  through  the  territory,  and  the  development  of  its  rich 
mines  of  gold  and  silver,  these  hostile  bands  have  gradually 
been  driven  out  or  restrained,  and  this  territory  has  entered 
upon  an  era  of  rapid  and  substantial  development  in  industry, 
wealth,  and  population. 

IX.    POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

Arizona  is  divided  into  nine  counties,  and  contains  the  follow- 
ing cities  and  towns  :  — 

Prescott  is  the  capital  of  the  territory,  and  county  seat  of 
Yavapai  County.  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  mountain  valley, 
and  enjoys  a  delightful  climate.  The  place  is  the  center  of  a 
considerable  trade  in  lumber,  cattle,  etc.  Its  elevation  is  over 
5,500  feet. 

Yuma,  in  Yuma  County,  on  the  Colorado  River,  lies  near 
the  boundary  line  of  Mexico,  and  directly  opposite  Fort  Yuma 
in  California.  It  is  an  important  trading  town,  on  the  line  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  is  fast  growing  in  population 
and  importance.  It  is  also  the  entrepot  of  a  large  river  trade 
on  the  lower  Colorado. 

Tucson,  in  Pima  County,  250  miles  from  Yuma,  on  the  line 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  is  near  several  rich  silver 
districts,  and  is  an  important  center  of  business  and  travel. 
It  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  rich  Santa  Cruz  region,  and 
has  a  large  business  in  cattle,  bullion,  and  farm  products. 

Tombstone,  in  Cachise  County,  is  the  center  of  a  rich  grazing  and  mining 
district.  It  has  had  a  very  rapid  growth,  and  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  largest 
cities  in  the  territory. 

Phoenix,  in  Maricopa  County,  is  the  center  of  trade  and  supplies  for  a 
number  of  prosperous  mining  districts,  and  is  rapidly  growing  in  importance. 

Florence  is  an  important  town  in  Pinal  County,  on  the  Gila  River.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  fertile  farming  region,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  supplying 
the  mining  districts  in  the  vicinity  and  in  reducing  and  shipping  their 
product. 

Globe  City,  in  Gila  County,  is  the  center  of  trade  for  an  extensive  mining 
district  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Pinal  Mountains. 

The  following  enterprising  places  are  also  worthy  of  mention  :  Tubac,  in 
Pima  County,  Ehrenberg  and  Castle  Dome  City,  in  Yuma  County;  Wick- 
enburg,  in  Maricopa  County;  Safford,  in  Graham  County;  and  Aubrey  City 
and  Hardyville,  in  Mohave  County.  All  these  towns  are  places  of  consider- 
able trade  in  connection  with  the  mining  and  shipping  interests  of  the 
territory. 


\L.i_w3^ — TT  \  X  il 


r-^— - 


28 


CALIFORNIA. 


CALIFORNIA, 


[Area,    f 58,360  square  miles.     Population  {1880),  864,686; 
estimated  population  (1883),  1,000,000. 

I.    SITUATION  AND   EXTENT. 


Situation.  —  California,  the  largest  and  most 
populous  of  the  Pacific   States,  borders  on  th^ 
Pacific  Ocean.     It  is  included  between   32°  31' 
and  42°  north  latitude,  and  120°  and  124 
longitude. 

Extent.  —  In  shape  it  is  an  irregular  oblong,  about 
750  miles  long  and  260  miles  wide.     It  is  three  times 
as  large  as  the  New  England  States,  and,  excepting 
Texas,  is  the  largest  state  in  the  Union. 


Physical  Divisions.  —  California  may  be  divided  into  five 
distinct  sections  :  (i)  the  mountain  region  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada ;  (2)  the  plains  of  the  Sacramento  valley ;  (3)  the  coast 
belt ;  (4)  the  plateau  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  the  border 
of  the  Great  Basin  ;  (5)  the  Colorado  desert,  in  the  south-east. 

Mountains.  —  The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  extend  north  and  south 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire  length  of  the  state.  The  average 
width  of  this  great  range  is  about  70  miles.  The  western  slope  to 
the  Sacramento  valley  is  very  gradual,  and  is  60  miles  long ;  the 
eastern  slope  to  the  Great  Basin,  short  and  precipitous,  not  exceed- 
ing 10  miles  in  length. 

The  loftiest  sumn.its  are  Mount  Whitney  (14,887  feet)  in  the  south,  and 
Mount  Shasta  (14,440  feet)  in  the  north.  The  average  height  of  the 
crest  summits  is  from  6,000  to  9,000  feet. 

The  higher  peaks  of  this  range  are  snow-clad  all  the  year  round,  and  are 
the  retreats  of  numerous  small  glaciers,  —  the  remaining  fragments  of 
a  system  of  mighty  glaciers  that  once  covered  the  entire  chain. 

The  Coast  Range  extends  in  parallel  ridges,  near  the  Pacific,  the  entire 
length  of  the  state,  750  miles.  It  is  from  20  to  40  miles  wide,  and  is 
less  than  half  the  average  height  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

Its  most  noted  peaks  are  Mount   Hamilton  (4,448  feet),  the  site  of  the 


VINE-GROWING. 

famous  Lick  Astronomical  Observatory;  St.  Helena,  in  Napa  valley 
(4.343  feet);  Mount  Tamalpais  (2.604  feet),  and  Monte  Diablo  (3,848 
feet),  near  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco;  and  Mount  San  Bernardino 
(\  1,600  feet),  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 
Valleys.  —  In  the  central  part  of  the  state  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the 
Coast  Range  are  nearly  parallel ;  but  in  the  north  and  towards  the  south 
the  two  chains  run  together,  and  inclose  the  Sacramento  valley.  This 
great  central  valley  is  400  miles  in  length  and  from  20  to  50  miles  in 
width.  It  is  drained  from  the  north  by  the  Sacramento  River,  and 
from  the  south  by  the  San  Joaquin.     The  Coast  Range  is  intersected 


CALIFORNIA. 


29 


by  numerous  small  valleys  opening  towards  the  ocean,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  the  Russian  River,  Napa,  Santa  Clara,  Salinas, 
and  San  Gabriel  valleys. 

The  Colorado  desert,  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  state,  east  of  the 
San  Bernardino  Mountains,  belongs  to  the  Great  Basin,  but  has  a  very 
moderate  elevation,  and  in  some  places  is  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  is  dry,  sandy,  hot,  and  barren. 

The  plateau  region,  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  is  a  part  of  the  Great 
Basin,  which  includes  Nevada  and  Utah.  It  is  an  arid  country,  gen- 
erally destitude  of  vegetation,  with  the  exception  of  sage  brush  and 
bunch  grass  and  the  forests  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains. 

Scenery.  —  California  is  noted  for  its  picturesque  scenery. 

The  Yosemite  V'alley,  in  the  heart  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  attracts  tourists 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  a  glacial  valley  seven  miles  long,  and 
a  mile  and  a  half  wide,  with  almost  vertical  walls  of  solid  granite  from 
3,000  to  4.000  feet  in  height.  It  has  numerous  waterfalls,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  Yosemite  Falls,  where  the  water  plunges  down 
1,600  feet  in  one  unbroken  sheet,  and  2,600  feet  in  three  leaps. 

Mount  Shasta,  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  state,  is  a  volcanic 
cone,  which  rises  14,440  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  10,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  plateau.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  mountains;  and  the  surrounding  country  is  a  favorite 
resort  for  tourists  and  hunters. 

The  Big  Tree  Groves,  near  the  Yosemite  Valley,  contain  some  of  the 
largest  trees  in  the  world. 

Lake  Tahoe  is  a  favorite  resort  for  summer  tourists. 


III.    DRAINAGE. 

The  two  largest  rivers,  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin, 
drain  the  Sacramento  basin,  and  flow  into  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco.  Their  tributaries  rise  in  the  summits  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  which  supply  an  abundance  of  water  from  melting  ice 
and  snow  during  the  long  dry  season. 

The  Sacramento  River,  400  miles  long,  rises  in  the  lakes  of  the  mountain 
region  around  Mount  Shasta,  and  flows  south  into  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco.  It  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  to  Red  Bluff,  300  miles. 
Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  American,  Yuba,  and  Feather  rivers. 

The  San  Joaquin,  350  miles  long,  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
and  flows  north  into  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  navigable  for 
large  steamers  to  Stockton,  120  miles,  and  for  small  steamers  75  miles 
farther.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Kings,  Kern,  Merced,  Tuolumne, 
Fresno,  Stanislaus,  Calaveras,  and  Mokelumne  rivers. 

The  smaller  rivers  which  flow  directly  into  the  Pacific  are  the  Klamath 
River,  Eel  River,  and  Russian  River,  north  of  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  and  the  Salinas  River  and  Santa  Ana  River,  to  the  south  of  that 
bay. 

The  rivers  of  the  plateau  and  desert  region  east  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  have  no  outlet  to  the  ocean.  They  are 
small  streams  that  terminate  in  salt  lakes,  or  disappear  by 
evaporation  in  the  "  sinks  "  of  the  desert. 

The  most  important  of  these  rivers  are  the  Mohave  {mo-ha've),  which 
sinks  in  the  sands  of  the  Mohave  desert;  Owens  River,  which  flows 
into  Owens  Lake  (salt);  the  Truckee,  which  flows  Into  Pryamid  Lake  in 
Nevada ;  Carson  River ;  and  Walker  River. 

Lakes Lake  Tahoe,  two  thirds  in  California  and  one  third  in  Nevada, 

is  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  about  6,000  feet. 
It  is  20  miles  long,  10  miles  wide,  and  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  moun- 
tain scenery. 

Clear  Lake,  in  the  Coast  Range,  north  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  is  a 
favorite  summer  resort. 

Tulare  Lake  is  a  large  and  shallow  sheet  of  water  which  lies  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Sacramento  valley,  and  has  its  outlet  in  the  San 
Joaquin  River. 

Mono  Lake  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in 
a  region  of  extinct  volcanic  cones.     Its  waters,  like  those  of  Great 


Salt  Lake  in  Utah,  are  so  intensely  salt,  bitter,  and  alkaline,  that  no 

fish  can  live  in  them. 
Owens  Lake,  south-east  of  Mono,  is  also  a  saline  lake. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  on  the  boundary  line  of  Oregon,  there 

is  a  group  of  fresh-water  lakes,  of  which  the  largest  are  Gcose,  Rhett, 

and  Klamath  lakes. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  California  is  sub-tropical.  There  are  two 
seasons,  —  a  dry  season,  from  May  to  November  (summer) ;  and 
a  rainy  season,  from  November  to  May  (winter).  Snow  falls 
only  in  the  mountain  regions.  In  general,  the  climate  is  health- 
ful, breezy,  and  invigorating,  subject  to  no  sudden  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold.  In  the  coast  belt  the  climate  is  remarkably 
mild  and  equable.  In  the  Sacramento  basin  and  the  foot-hills 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  the  summer  is  very  hot  and  dry,  but  the 
rainy  season  is  cool  and  delightful. 

The  rain-winds  of  California  are  the  south-west  return  trade-winds, 
which  have  their  moisture  condensed  as  they  strike  the  cool  mountain 
.slopes  and  summits. 

In  summer  the  great  tropical  rain-belt  of  the  trade-winds  is  moved  from 
7°  to  10°  farther  north  than  in  winter.  As  a  consequence  the  return 
trade-winds  descend  to  the  earth  mostly  to  the  northward  of  California. 
Besides,  any  rain-clouds  falling  upon  California  have  their  moisture 
dissipated  and  absorbed  by  the  hot  air  rising  from  the  heated  earth 
during  the  long,  dry,  hot  summer. 

The  cause  of  the  equable  climate  along  the  coast  belt  is  the  return  Japan 
current,  which  moves  in  a  broad  stream  from  20  to  30  miles  wide  the 
entire  length  of  the  coast.  This  current  in  winter  is  warmer  than  the 
neighboring  land  :  in  summer  it  is  cooler.  This  difference  of  tempera- 
ture renders  the  climate  more  equable,  and  also  causes  the  dense  fogs 
prevailing  along  the  coast  both  in  summer  and  winter. 

The  strong,  chilling,  and  fog-laden  winds  that  blow  in  San  Francisco 
during  the  summer  months  are  caused  by  the  cold-air  currents  that 
rush  from  the  ocean  through  the  Golden  Gate  into  the  heated  valley 
of  the  Sacramento. 

V.    NATURAL  ADVANTAGES. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  rolling  hills  is  fertile  and 
easily  tilled,  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  the 
cereals  and  the  vine.  The  tule  lands  along  the  banks  of  the 
Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  are  exceedingly  productive 
when  reclaimed  and  protected  by  levees  from  overflow. 

Minerals.  —  California  is  rich  in  minerals,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  gold.  The  gold  region  lies  chiefly  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

Quicksilver-mines  are  numerous  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Coast  Range. 

Petroleum  is  found  in  the  coast  belt  south  of  San  Francisco. 
The  only  coal-mines  in  the  state  which  are  extensively  worked  are  near 

Monte  Diablo,  in  Contra  Costa  County. 
There  are  also  in  California  valuable  deposits  of  iron,  copper,  and  tin, 

though  they  are  not  extensively  worked. 

Forests. — The  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  of 
the  Coast  Range  north  of  the  Bay  of  Monterey,  are  covered  by 
extensive  forests  of  conifers,  such  as  pine,  fir,  and  redwood. 

The  most  durable  lumber  for  building  purposes  is  supplied  by  the  red- 
wood trees  of  the  Coast  Range. 

The  oak  and  sycamore  are  found  in  the  valleys  and  foot-hills. 

The  Sacramento  valley,  the  southern  coast  belt,  and  the  plateau  and 
desert  region  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  are  almost  desti- 
tute of  trees. 

The  "  Big  Trees  "  (Sequoia  gigantea)  are  among  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
Some  of  these  trees  are  over  100  feet  in  circumference  and  300  feet 
in  height.  The  best  known  groves  are  the  Calaveras  Grove  and  the 
Mariposa  Grove,  both  near  the  Yosemite  Valley.  There  is  a  forest 
belt  of  these  trees,  from  three  to  six  miles  in  width,  extending  along 


30 


CALIFORNIA. 


the  Sierra  Nevada  from  the  Yosemite  region  southward  for  120  miles. 
The  Sequoia  furnishes  excellent  lumber  resembling  redwood. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation,  the  annual  wheat-crop 
alone  exceeding  in  value  the  annual  product  of  the  gold  and 
silver  mines.  Owing  to  the  diversity  of  climate,  surface,  and 
soil,  the  agricultural  products  are  exceedingly  varied. 

The  Cereals.  —  In  wheat-growing,  California  ranks  as  one  of  the  leading 
states.     Barley  and  oats  are  extensively  raised. 

The  Grape.  —  The  culture  of  the  grape  ranks  next  in  importance  to 
wheat-raising.  The  vine  thrives  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  state  below 
an  elevation  of  4,000  feet.  The  annual  wine  product  already  exceeds 
12,000,000  gallons.  In  the  hot  and  dry  Sacramento  basin  and  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  the  grapes  are  made  into  raisins. 

Fruit.  —  The  central  and  northern  sections  of  the  state  are  favorable  to 
the  culture  of  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  prunes,  apricots,  and 
cherries.  Great  quantities  of  plums  and  apricots  are  put  up  in  cans 
for  export,  and  pears  and  grapes  are  extensively  shipped  by  rail  to 
Eastern  cities. 

Dried  prunes,  plums,  and  peaches  are  important  articles  of  export.  The 
coast  belt  south  of  Santa  Barbara  is  noted  for  the  production  of  the 
citrus  fruits,  —  oranges,  lemons,  and  limes. 

Other  Products.  —  Bee-culture  is  an  important  industry  in  San  Diego 
and  Los  Angeles  counties,  and  great  quantities  of  the  finest  honey 
are  sent  to  Eastern  markets.  Olive-oil  is  an  important  product  of  the 
olive-orchards.  Cotton  and  tobacco  grow  in  the  state,  but  are  not 
extensively  cultivated.  Potatoes  and  other  vegetables  are  grown 
along  the  coast  and  in  the  bay  counties. 

Mining For  twenty  years  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in 

1848,  mining  was  the  leading  industry  in  California;  but  since 
that  period  it  has  ranked  second  in  importance  to  agriculture. 

The  annual  gold  product  does  not  now  exceed  ?  17,000,000;  but  formerly, 
for  many  years  in  succession,  the  annual  yield  exceeded  $50,000,000. 
The  total  product  of  the  mines  since  1848  is  estimated  to  exceed 
$1,000,000,000. 

Gold  is  obtained  from  "  quartz-mines  "  by  crushing  gold-bearing  quartz- 
rock,  and  from  gravel  banks  by  washing  away  the  earth  with  streams 
of  water  forced  by  heavy  pressure  through  strong  hose-pipe. 

Prominent  among  the  other  industries  are  stock-raising,  lum- 
bering, varied  manufactures,  and  a  large  domestic  and  foreign 
trade. 

Stock-raising.  —  The  rolling  hills  and  the  mountain  slopes  of  Cali- 
fornia afford  pasturage  for  large  herds  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 
The  coast  belt  north  of  San  Francisco  is  noted  for  its  dairy  products. 

Lumbering.  —  In  the  redwood  forests  of  the  coast  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  in  some  parts  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  saw-mills  are  numer- 
ous, and  lumbering  is  the  chief  industry. 

Manufactures.  —  The  most  important  manufactured  products  are  lumber, 
flour,  wine,  liquors,  mining  machinery,  iron-work,  woolens,  boots  and 
shoes,  leather,  clothing,  canned  and  dried  fruits. 

Commerce —  California  has  an  extensive  export  and  import  trade.  It 
is  connected  by  steamship  lines  with  China.  Japan,  India,  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  Australia,  Mexico,  and  South  America.  It  is  connected 
with  the  Atlantic  states  by  two  transcontinental  railroads,  by  a  steam- 
ship line  vid  Panama,  and  by  sailing-vessels  around  Cape  Horn.  Its 
chief  exports  are  wheat,  wine,  wool,  gold,  dried  and  canned  fruits. 
Its  chief  imports  are  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  and  manufactured  articles  of 
all  descriptions. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  government  of  California  is  administered  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  state  constitution,  which  was  adopted  in  the  year 
1879. 

State  Government.  —  The  officers  of  the  executive  department  of  the 
state  government  are  the  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of 
state,  comptroller,  treasurer,  attorney-general,  surveyor-general,  clerk 


of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  all 
elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people  for  a  term  of  four  years. 

The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty  members,  elected  for  four 
years,  and  of  an  Assembly  of  eighty  members,  elected  for  two  years. 
The  Legislature  holds  biennial  sessions. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  the  Senate  sitting  as  a  court  of  impeach- 
ment, in  a  Supreme  Court,  superior  courts,  justices  of  the  peace,  and 
such  inferior  courts  as  may  be  established  by  law.  The  Supreme 
Court  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  six  associate  justices. 

Local  Government.  —  The  officers  of  a  county  government  are  a  board 
of  supervisors,  board  of  education,  treasurer,  assessor,  ta.\-collector, 
district-attorney,  sheriff,  surveyor,  county  clerk,  and  superintendent  of 
common  schools.  The  unit  of  political  division  is  the  school  district, 
the  officers  of  which  consist  of  three  school  trustees,  elected  by  direct 
vote  of  the  people  for  a  term  of  three  years. 

National  Representation.  —  California  is  represented  in  Congress  at 
Washington  by  two  senators  and  six  representatives,  and  hence  is 
entitled  to  eight  electoral  votes. 

VIII.    EDUCATION. 

The  state  has  a  well-organized  system  of  public  schools. 

The  state  constitution  provides  that  a  free  school  shall  be 
maintained  in  every  school  district  for  at  least  six  months  in 
the  year. 

The  schools  are  supported  partly  by  state,  by  county,  and  by 
district  taxation. 

Each  county  has  a  county  superintendent  of  common  schools,  elected  by 
the  people  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  a  county  board  of  education, 
consisting  of  the  county  superintendent  and  four  members  appointed 
by  the  county  board  of  supervisors.  The  county  board  of  education 
prescribes  the  text-books  and  courte  of  stud)-,  and  examines  teachers. 

Each  school  district  has  a  board  of  trustees  of  three  members,  elected 
at  special  school  elections  for  three  years,  one  member  being  elected 
each  year.  The  school  trustees  appoint  teachers,  build  schoolhouses, 
and  have  the  local  government  of  the  schools. 

California  raises  annually,  by  direct  state  tax,  more  than  a  million  of 
dollars  for  the  support  of  public  schools;  and  the  total  expenditure 
for  schools  in  1883  was  over  three  millions  of  dollars. 

State  Institutions.  —  The  State  University  of  California,  at  Berkeley,  is 
well  endowed,  and  is  free  to  both  young  men  and  young  women.  The 
State  Normal  School,  at  San  Jos^,  is  attended  by  a  large  number  of 
students ;  and  the  Branch  State  Normal  School  at  Los  Angeles  is  a 
flourishing  institution.  The  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  and 
Blind  is  located  at  Berkeley. 

There  are  numerous  denominational  colleges  and  seminaries 
and  many  excellent  private  schools. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

Upper  or  Alta  California  was  first  explored  by  the  Spaniards, 
within  fifty  years  after  the  discover)'  of  America  by  Columbus. 

The  name  "  California "  was  given  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  region  north 
of  Mexico.  The  name  is  taken  from  an  old  Crusader  romance  which 
was  very  popular  in  the  days  of  Cortez. 

The  Spaniards  made  their  first  settlement  in  Upper  California,  at  San 
Diego,  in  1769.  San  Diego  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  Missions, 
which  the  Spanish  Catholic  missionaries  established  in  California, 
running  north  from  San  Diego  to  San  Francisco.  Into  these  Mis- 
sions the  Indians  were  gathered,  and  the  Padres,  or  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  taught  them  the  arts  of  civilization.  They  cultivated  the  vine, 
the  olive,  and  the  fig,  and  lived  in  spacious  houses,  built  of  adobe,  or 
sun-dried  bricks. 

In  1822  Mexico  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain,  and  became  an  independent 
republic.    Alta  or  Upper  California  was  then  made  a  Mexican  province. 

The  first  American  settlers  found  their  way  into  California  in  1843.  In 
1846  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  began.  The 
Americans  in  California  immediately  raised  the  "bear  flag,"  and 
asserted  their  independence  of  Mexico.     At  this  time  Capt.  John  C. 


I 


CALIFORNIA. 


Fremont,  who  had  been  sent  west  to  survey  a  new  route  to  Oregon, 
arrived  in  California.     Fremont  united  with  the  Americans,  who  were 
successful  in  several  encounters  with  the  Mexicans. 
In  July,  1846,  Commodore  Sloat,  then  commander  of  the  United  States 
fleet  on  the  Pacific  coast,  hearing  of  the  declaration  of  war,  took  pos- 
session of  Monterey.     A  little  later,  Stockton  superseded  Sloat.     He 
took  San  Diego,  and,  aided  by  Fremont,  captured  Los  Angeles.     Late 
in  the  year,  Gen.  Kearney,  with  a  small  column  from  the  army  operat- 
ing against  Mexico  on  the  northern  line,  reached  California  after  a 
long  and  toilsome  march  from  Santa  F^,  in  New  Mexico.     Kearney  ■ 
arrived  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  San  Gabriel,  Jan.  8,  1847. 
This  action  overthrew  the  Spanish  power,  and  established  the  author- : 
ity  of  the  United  States  in  California. 

The  Mexican  war  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Guadaloupe 
Hidalgo,  Feb.  2,  1848.  It  was  just  before  this  treaty  was  con- 
cluded that  the  first  discovery  of  gold  in  California  took  place 
(Jan.  19,  1848), —  a  discovery  which  resulted  in  founding  a 
great  state  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  news  of  the  discovery  reached  the  States ;  and  it  soon  spread 
throughout  the  world  that  California  was  the  golden  land,  the  true 
'*  El  Dorado."  An  extraordinary  rush  of  immigration  to  the  diggings 
now  set  in.  Some  crossed  the  thousands  of  miles  of  dreary  and 
desolate  plains,  others  braved  the  deadly  climate  of  the  Panama  route, 
while  still  others  made  the  long  circumnavigation  of  Cape  Horn.  In 
1849,  between  the  months  of  April  and  January,  nearly  forty  thousand 
emigrants  arrived  at  the  port  of  San  Francisco. 

California  was  soon  ready  to  become  a  state.  In  September, 
1849,  a  convention  met  at  Monterey  and  framed  a  state  consti- 
tution. Congress  admitted  California  into  the  Union,  Sept.  9, 
1850. 

The  history  of  California  may  be  divided  into  two  periods,  — 
the  period  of  "gold  and  experiment,"  and  the  period  of  "wheat 
and  growth." 

The  first  period  began  with  the  discovery  of  gold,  and  lasted  till  about 
i860.  During  this  period  the  great  object  of  the  people  was  to 
accumulate  a  fortune  and  return  "  home."  The  second  period  began 
when  the  population  ceased  to  be  exclusively  a  mining  population  and 
commenced  to  develop  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  state. 

After  some  years  it  was  found  that  the  yearly  returns  derived  from  the 
export  of  wheat  were  fully  equal  to  the  value  of  the  gold  produced. 

With  the  period  of  *' wheat  and  growth,"  people  began  to  think  of  mak- 
ing their  homes  on  the  Pacific  coast.  They  found  they  had  every  in- 
ducement to  do  so  in  its  remarkable  climate  and  its  rich  returns  for 
human  industry. 

The  subsequent  progress  of  California  has  been  both  rapid  and  health- 
ful. The  pioneers  of  California  were,  as  a  rule,  young  men  of  energy 
and  brains.  Many  were  finely  educated.  This  has  given  a  very  bright 
and  progressive  character  to  California  life  and  civilization. 

X.    POLITICAL   DIVISIONS. 

California  is  divided  into  fifty-two  counties,  and  contains  the 
following  leading  cities  and  towns  :  — 

San  Francisco,  the  largest  city  of  the  Pacific  coast,  is  a 
great  commercial  and  manufacturing  seaport.  In  foreign  com- 
merce it  ranks  as  the  fourth  city  in  the  United  States.  The 
foundation  of  its  commercial  greatness  is  its  magnificent  harbor, 
the  finest  on  the  whole  coast. 

The  city  is  situated  on  a  low  sandy  peninsula  lying  between  the  Bay  of 
San  Francisco  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  bay  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water  60  miles  long  and  10  miles  wide.  The  entrance  to  this  land- 
locked harbor  is  through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  narrow  strait  one  mile 
wide. 

The  manufactures  consist  of  mining-machinery,  iron-work,  woolen  goods, 
boots  and  shoes,  leather,  clothing,  cigars,  carriages,  furniture,  and 
agricultural  impleme^jts. 


The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  wine,  wool,  gold,  canned  and  dried  fruits. 

The  chief  imports  are  manufactured  goods  of  all  kinds,  sugar,  coffee, 

and  tea. 
San  Francisco  is  the  site  of  a  United  States  branch  mint,  the  largest 

and  finest  in  the  world. 

Sacramento,  in  Sacramento  County,  on  the  Sacramento 
River,  120  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  the  capital  of  the  state. 
The  state  Capitol  is  an  imposing  building,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
three  millions  of  dollars.  Sacramento  is  the  site  of  the  exten- 
sive machine-shops  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad.  It  is  in  the 
center  of  a  rich  farming  region,  and  has  an  extensive  trade. 

Oakland,  in  Alameda  County,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, 10  miles  from  San  Francisco,  ranks  in  population  as  the  second  city 
in  the  state.  It  is  closely  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  ferries.  It  is  a 
favorite  place  of  residence  on  account  of  its  trees,  its  gardens,  and  its  mild 
climate.  The  city  has  important  manufactories  of  hosiery,  cotton  goods, 
nails,  etc. 

Los  Angeles,  in  Los  Angeles  County,  is  the  business  center  of  Southern 
California.  It  is  noted  for  its  orange  groves  and  vineyards,  and  is  a  favorite 
winter  resort  for  Eastern  tourists.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Branch  State  Nor- 
mal School. 

San  Jose,  in  Santa  Clara  County,  is  the  trade  center  of  the  beautiful  and 
highly  cultivated  valley  of  Santa  Clara.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Normal 
School  and  of  the  College  of  Notre  Dame. 

Stockton,  in  San  Joaquin  County,  on  the  San  Joaquin  River,  has  a  large 
agricultural  trade  with  the  surrounding  country.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Asylum  for  the  Insane. 


Alameda  —  contiguous  to  Oakland,  is,  like  that 
city,  a  famous  place  of  residence  for  people 
doing  business  in  San  Francisco. 

Berkeley  —  contiguous  to  Oakland  on  the  north, 
is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  California 
and  of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
and  Blind. 

Chico  —  in  Butte  County,  has  an  important  trade 
in  farm  products  and  lumber. 

Eureka  —  in  Humboldt  County,  on  Humboldt 
Bay,  in  the  redwood  region,  has  the  largest 
lumber  trade  in  the  state 

Fresno  —  in  Fresno  County,  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  is  the  trade 
center  of  a  large  vine  and  fruit  growing 
region  made  fertile  by  irrigation. 

Grass  Valley  —  in  Nevada  County,  is  a  mountain 
town  in  the  midst  of  extensive  quarlz-mines. 

Modesto  —  in  Stanislaus  County,  in  the  San  Joa- 
quin valley,  on  the  line  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad,  is  the  trade  center  of  a  large 
agricultural  region. 

Monterey  —  in  Monterey  County,  on  Monterey 
Bay,  is  a  fashionable  summer  resort. 

Marysville  —  in  Yuba  County,  has  an  extensive 
mining  and  agricultural  trade. 

Napa  —  in  Napa  County,  on  the  Napa  valley 
branch  of  the  California  Pacific  Railroad, 
commands  the  trade  of  the  beautiful  and 
fertile  Napa  valley.  It  is  the  site  of  a  branch 
State  Asylum  for  the  Insane. 

Nevada  City  —  in  Nevada  County,  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains,  is  situated  in  a  rich  gold 
region,  and  has  an  extensive  mining  business. 

Peta)unia  —  in  Sonoma  County,  on  the  San  Fran- 
cisco and  North  Pacific  Railroad,  and  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  Petaluma  Creek,  is  an 
important  shipping  point  for  the  farm  prod- 
ucts of  Sonoma  County. 

Port  Costa  —  in  Contra  Costa  County,  on  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco,  30  miles  from  the  city 
of  San  Francisco,  is  the  chief  point  for  the 
ocean  shipment  of  wheat.  It  contains  im- 
mense warehouses  for  storing  grain,  and  has 
the  largest  flour-mill  in  the  state. 

Placerville  —  in  El  Dorado  County,  is  the  termi- 
nus of  the  Sacramento  and  Placerville  Rail- 
road. It  was  formerly  a  famous  mining  town. 

Red  Bluff  —  in  Tehama  County,  at  the  head  of 
light  steamer  navigation  on  the  Sacramento, 
commands  the  trade  of  the  upper  Sacramento 
valley. 

Santa  Barbara  —  in  Santa  Barbara  County,  on 


the  seacoast,  is  a  favorite  resort  for  invalids 
and  tourists,  on  account  of  its  charming 
climate. 

San  Bernardino  —  in  San  Bernardino  County,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state,  is  surrounded 
by  vineyards  and  orange  groves.  It  is  on 
the  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  has  an  extensive  trade  with  Arizona. 

Santa  Cruz  —  in  Santa  Cruz  County,  is  a  noted 
summer  resort  for  sea-bathing.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  paper,  powder,  lime,  and  leather. 

Santa  Clara  —  in  Santa  Clara  County,  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  extensive  fruit-growing 
region.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of 
the  Pacific  and  of  the  Santa  Clara  College. 

San  Diego  —  in  San  Diego  County,  on  San  Diego 
Bay,  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  at  Colion. 

San  Quentin  —  in  Marin  County,  on  the  Bay  of 
San  Francisco,  is  the  site  of  the  State  Prison  . 
of  California. 

Santa  Rosa  —  in  Sonoma  County,  is  the  business 
center  of  the  fertile  Russian  River  valley. 

San  Rafael  —  in  Marin  County,  on  the  shores  of 
the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  is  a  favorite  sum- 
mer resort  00  aax>unt  of  its  delightful  sum- 
mer  climate. 

St.  Helena  —  in  Napa  valley,  is  surrounded  by 
extensive  vineyards,  and  has  an  extensive 
trade  in  wine. 

Truckee  —  in  Nevada  County,  near  the  crest  of 
the  Sierra,  at  an  elevation  of  about  6,000 
feet,  has  extensive  saw-mills  and  lumber 
manufactories,  run  by  the  water-power  of 
the  Truckee  River.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
Donner  Lake  and  Lake  Tahoe.  In  winter 
snow  falls  to  a  great  depth. 

Vallejo  —  in  Solano  County,  on  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  is  the  bay  terminus  of  the  Napa 
Valley  and  the  California  Pacific  railroads. 
Near  the  city,  on  Mare  Island,  is  a  United 
States  navy-yard,  —  the  only  one  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Visalia  —  in  Tulare  County,  is  the  trade  center  of 
an  extensive  grain-growing  region  in  the  San 
Joaquin  valley. 

Yreka  — in  Siskiyou  County,  is  in  the  extreme 
northern  part  of  the  state.  It  was  once  a 
famous  mining  town,  but  is  now  the  trade 
center  of  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising 
country.  It  is  on  the  line  of  the  California 
and  Oregon  Railroad. 


32 


NEVADA. 


NEVADA. 


[Area,  110.700  square  mites. 
Population  {Census  of  1880), 
62.266.] 


I. 


SITUATION    AND 
TENT. 


EX- 


NNEL. 


Situation.  —  Nevada 
lies    east    of    California, 
and  includes  the  western 
part  of  the  central  plateau 
known  as  the  Great  Basin. 
This    basin,   between    the 
Sierra   Nevada  and  the 
Wahsatch  Mountains,  is 
500  miles  in  width,  and 
is  crossed  by  more  than 
one  hundred  short  moun- 
tain ranges. 

Nevada  is  included  be- 
tween 35°  and  42°  north 
latitude  and  114°  and  120°  west  longitude. 

Extent.  —  It  is  nearly  500  miles  in  length  north  and  south, 
and  300  miles  in  width.  In  area  it  is  about  two-thirds  the  size 
of  California,  and  about  equal  to  Colorado  or  Arizona. 

II.    SURFACE. 

This  state  is  a  vast  plateau,  elevated  about  4,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.     It  is  crossed  north  and  south  by  short 
detached  mountain  ranges  and  spurs,  over  sixty  in  number,  gen- 
erally lying  in  parallel  lines,  with  narrow  intervening  valleys. 
Mountains.  —  The  highest  mountain  summits  are  Mount  Wheeler  (12,800 
feet),  Mount  Moriah  (12,000  feet),  and  Granite  Mountain  (12,000  feet). 
—  all  in  the  Snake  Range,  near  the  boundary  line  of  Utah. 
The  most  noted  peak  is  Mount  Davidson  (7,827  feet),  famous  for  its 
immense  mineral  treasures. 


Valleys Nevada  has  no  broad  river  valleys.     Its  longest  rivers,  the 

Humboldt  and  the  Carson,  are  bordered  in  a  part  of  their  courses  by 
a  narrow  strip  of  green  and  fertile  meadow  lands.  Many  of  its  wide, 
open  valleys  lying  between  mountain  ranges  have  no  rivers  e.xcept 
the  small,  narrow  streams  that  rush  down  from  the  melting  snows,  and 
rapidly  disappear  on  reaching  the  plains. 

The  valleys  and  plains  are  covered  in  many  places  with  sage-brush  and 
bunch-grass,  with  here  and  there  an  alkaline  flat  of  dazzling  white,  or  a 
small  lake  of  intensely  salt  and  bitter  water. 

General  Aspect.' — The  general  aspect  of  the  countrj-  is  exceedingly 
barren,  desolate,  and  uninviting. 

III.  DRAINAGE. 

As  Nevada  lies  in  a  region  of  light  rains,  its  rivers  are  small 
and  comparatively  few.  Its  only  waters  that  reach  the  Pacific 
are  a  few  small  streams  that  flow  into  the  Colorado.  All  its 
other  rivers  flow  into  saline  lakes,  or  terminate  in  sinks  in  the 
sandy  deserts. 

The  Humboldt,  the  largest  and  longest  river,  rises  in  the  north-eastern 
part  of  the  state,  flows  south-westerly  in  a  winding  course  of  350  miles, 
and  disappears  in  the  broad,  shallow,  and  brackish  waters  of  the  Hum- 
boldt lake  and  sink.  The  Central  Pacific  Railroad  runs  along  the 
narrow  valley  of  this  river  for  more  than  200  miles. 

Truckee  River,  which  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Tahoe,  is  90  miles  long,  and 
flows  into  Pyramid  Lake.  Lake  Tahoe  is  partly  in  Nevada,  and  partly 
in  California. 

The  Carson  River  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  flows  east- 
erly into  Carson  I.ake :  and  Walker  River,  rising  in  the  same  moun- 
tains, flows  into  Walker  Lake. 

The  Colorado  is  merely  a  boundary  river.  None  of  the  rivers  of  Nevada 
are  navigable,  but  they  are  valuable  for  irrigation  purposes. 

IV.  CLIMATE. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  in  Nevada  does  not  exceed  five 
inches :  hence  the  climate  is  exceedingly  drj'.  The  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  are  much  greater  than  they  are  nearer  the 
coast  in  the  same  latitude.  •    . 


i 


NEVADA. 


33 


The  cause  of  the  dryness  of  the  Great  Basin  is  the  Sierra  Nevada  Range, 
which  condenses  the  greater  part  of  the  moisture  in  the  rain-winds 
from  the  Pacific.  In  summer,  on  the  arid  plains,  the  heat  during  the 
day  is  intense ;  but,  owing  to  rapid  radiation,  the  nights  are  always 
cool. 

V.    RESOURCES   AND    INDUSTRIES. 

Agriculture  is  possible  in  Nevada  only  where  the  soil  can  be 
irrigated  by  the  water  of  mountain  streams. 

The  extent  of  land  capable  of  being  cultivated  depends  entirely  on  the 
water-supply.  The  farms  of  Nevada  lie  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the 
Carson  River,  Walker  River,  and  Humboldt  River,  where  the  products 
are  grain,  hay,  vegetables,  and  fruit. 

In  parts  of  the  state  the  extensive  plains,  covered  with  .sage-brush  and 
bunch-grass,  afford  fine  natural  pasturage  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
stock-raising  is  an  important  pursuit. 

Minerals.  —  Nevada,  though  meager  in  vegetation,  is  rich 
in  minerals,  and  mining  is  the  chief  pursuit  of  the  people. 
Silver-mines  are  found  in  nearly  every  mountain  range  in  the 

state. 

The  most  noted  mines  are  those  of  the  Comstock  Lode,  on  Mount  David- 
son, in  Storey  County,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state.  These  are 
called  silver-mines,  though  they  yield  both  gold  and  silver.  For  many 
years  after  their  discovery  in  1859  they  were  the  richest  mines  in  the 
world,  yielding  an  annual  product  of  $30,000,000.  The  mines  of  the 
Eureka  and  White  Pine  Districts  were  also  famous  for  their  richness. 
The  total  silver  product  of  Nevada  in  1881  exceeded  $8,000,000. 

Lead  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  in  the  reduction  of  silver  ores.  Salt 
is  found  spread  in  thin  beds  over  the  surface  of  low  basins,  and  in  the 
form  of  rock-salt  in  solid  crystalline  masses. 

Nevada  also  contains  valuable  deposits  of  soda,  sulphur,  borax,  and 
antimony,  though  none  of  these  minerals  are  extensively  worked. 

Forests.  —  The  greater  part  of  Nevada  is  almost  treeless. 

The  forests  are  limited  to  a  narrow  belt  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  caiions  of  the  mountain'ridges,  where  the  pine, 
fir,  and  spruce  reach  a  considerable  size,  though  not  so  large  as  on  the 
California  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

The  nut  pine  yields  a  great  abundance  of  edible  nuts,  which  the  Indians 
use  as  an  important  article  of  food. 

Commerce.  —  The  trade  of  Nevada  consists  in  the  export 
of  bullion  and  ores,  live-stock  and  wool,  and  in  the  import  of 
bread-stuffs,  machinery,  and  manufactured  articles  of  all  de- 
scriptions. 

The  most  important  railroad  is  the  Central  Pacific,  which  extends  the 

entire  width  of  the  state. 
There  are  several  short  branch  roads,  of  which  the  most  important  are 

the  Virginia  and  Truckee,  from  Reno  to  Virginia  City;,  the  Eureka 

and  Palisade ;  the  Battle  Mountain  and  Austin. 

VI.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  present  constitution  was  adopted  in  1866,  and  its  pro- 
visions are  of  the  most  liberal  character. 

The  officers  of  the  executhie  department  of  the  government  are  the 
governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  state,  treasurer,  comp- 
troller, surveyor-general,  attorney-general,  and  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  all  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  for  a  term  of  four 
years. 

The  legislative  department  consists  of  a  Senate  of  twenty-five  members, 
elected  for  four  years,  and  an  Assembly  of  fifty  members,  elected  for 
two  years.     The  sessions  of  the  Legislature  are  biennial. 

The  judicial  department  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court,  district  courts, 
and  justices  of  the  peace,  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people. 

National  Representation.  —  Nevada  is  represented  in  Congress  at  Wash- 
ington by  two  senators  and  one  representative,  and  is  therefore  entitled 
to  three  electoral  votes. 


VII.    EDUCATION. 

The  public  school  system  of  Nevada  resembles  that  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  schools  are  under  the  general  control  of  a  State  Board  of  Education, 
consisting  of  the  governor,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  the  surveyor-general.  Each  county  has  a  county  superintendent 
of  schools,  and  each  school  district  has  a  local  district  board  of  three 
trustees. 

There  is  a  State  University  at  Elko.  The  schools  of  Virginia  City,  Gold 
Hill,  and  Carson  are  distinguished  for  their  excellence. 

VIII.    HISTORY. 

The  soil  of  Nevada  was  part  of  the  extensive  territory  ac- 
quired by  the  United  States  from  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of 
Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,  in  1848. 

When  the  present  boundaries  of  California  were  marked  off,  in  1850,  the 
newly-acquired  region  to  the  east  was  organized  as  Utah  Territory. 
This  territory  embraced  nearly  all  of  what  is  now  the  state  of  Nevada. 

While  Nevada  was  a  part  of  Utah  it  received  a  small  Mormon  popula- 
tion. These  first  actual  settlers  went  to  Nevada  in  1848.  The 
population  was  very  small  till  the  time  of  the  first  great  silver  dis- 
covery, in  1859,  when  it  increased  rapidly  by  emigration  from  Cali- 
fornia. A  number  of  towns  were  founded,  among  which  Virginia  City 
and  Carson  took  the  lead. 

Nevada  was  made  a  separate  territory  in  1861,  and  in  1864  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  state. 

IX.    POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

Nevada  is  divided  into  thirteen  counties,  each  of  which  has  a 
local  county  government.  It  contains  the  following  leading 
cities  and  towns  :  — 

Virginia  City  (10,917),  in  Storey  County,  is  the  most  noted 
mining  town  in  the  world.  It  is  built  on  the  steep  slopes  of 
Mount  Davidson,  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level  and  of  2,000  feet  above  the  surrounding  plateau. 

The  ores  of  the  famous  mines  that  underlie  the  city  are  obtained  by 
means  of  shafts  and  inclines,  some  of  which  reach  a  depth  of  more 
than  3,000  feet.  The  machinery  of  these  mines  for  hoisting  the  ore, 
pumping  the  water,  and  ventilating  the  lower  levels  is  the  finest  and 
costliest  in  the  world.  The  lower  levels  are  so  intensely  hot  that  the 
miners  can  work  only  half  an  hour  at  a  time ;  and  to  strangers  visiting 
the  mines  the  heat  is  insufferable.  The  immense  quantities  of  lumber 
used  in  timbering  up  the  shafts  and  drifts  in  the  mines  are  brought 
from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

Gold  Hill  (4,531)  is  on  the  C(5mstock  Lode,  contiguous  to 
Virginia  City.  Indeed,  the  two  cities  run  together,  and  form 
but  one  town,  though  they  have  distinct  city  governments. 

Some  of  the  richest  mines  lie  underneath  the  town.  Both  Gold  Hill  and 
Virginia  City  are  supplied  with  water  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  brought 
by  means  of  flumes  and  strong  iron  pipe.  Both  cities  are  distinguished 
for  their  excellent  public  schools. 

Carson  (4,229),  in  Ormsby  County,  is  the  capital  of  Nevada. 
It  is  situated  near  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains, and  is  abundantly  supplied  with  the  purest  mountain  water. 
It  is  the  site  of  a  United  States  branch  mint. 

Austin,  in  Lander  County,  is  the  center  of  the  silver-mining  district  of 
Reese  River. 

Battle  Mountain  —  on  the  line  of  the  Central  I  Hamilton  —  in  White  Pine  County,  lies  in  the 


Pacific  Railroad,  is  a  shipping  point  of  ores 
and  mining  supplies. 

Elko  —  on  the  line  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad, 
is  the  site  of  the  State  University. 

Eureka  —  in  Eureka  County,  is  the  center  of  one 
of  the  richest  mining  districts  in  the  state. 
It  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  Central  Pa- 
cific Railroad  at  Palis.tde. 


center  of  a  rich  mining  district. 

Reno  —  in  Washoe  County,  is  on  the  Truckee 
River,  on  the  line  of  the  Central  Pacific 
Railroad,  at  the  point  of  its  junction  with 
the  Virginia  and  Truckee  Railroad. 

Winnemucca  —  in  Humboldt  County,  on  Hum- 
boldt River,  contains  extensive  workshops  of 
the  Central  Pacific  Railroad. 


8«    Local  Time  A. 31.       9  tchen  yoon  on      9*         the  Meridian         9*       of  Washington       9" 


OREGON. 


35 


OREGON 


Situation.  —  What  division  north  of  Oregon  ?  What  river  marks  most 
of  this  boundary?  What  division  on  the  east?  What  states  on  the  south? 
By  what  is  it  bounded  on  the  west?  Between  what  parallels  is  it  situated? 
Nearly  between  what  meridians  ?  According  to  the  scale  of  miles,  what  is 
its  width  from  east  to  west?     What  its  length  from  north  to  south? 

Surface.  —  What  is  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  western  portion  ? 
The  central  and  eastern  portion  ?  What  is  the  principal  mountain  range  ? 
Its  location  and  e.xtent  ?  What  high  mountain  peaks  does  it  contain  ?  What 
extensive  river  valley  ? 

Lakes  and  Rivers.  —  What  is  the  largest  river?  Describe  its  course. 
In  what  direction  do  its  tributaries  in  this  state  flow?  Name  and  describe 
the  tributary  which  forms  part  of  its  eastern  boundary.  What  considerable 
streams  empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean?  What  lakes  in  the  southern  part? 
Are  they  connected  by  rivers  with  the  ocean  ? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  How  many  counties  are  there  in  Oregon?  In 
what  part  of  the  state  are  the  counties  smallest  in  extent?  Where  the  largest 
in  extent?  What  counties  border  on  the  Columbia  River?  What  counties 
border  on  the  Willamette  River  to  the  west  ?  What  to  the  east  ?  What  is 
the  capital,  and  where  is  it  located?  The  largest  city?  What  city  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River?  Name  several  cities  located  on  the  Colum- 
bia River.  Several  on  the  Willamette  River.  What  proportion  of  the  state 
appears  from  the  map  to  be  but  sparsely  settled  ? 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  96,030  square  miles.     Population  {Census  of  1880),  174,768.] 
I.    SITUATION   AND    EXTENT. 

Situation.  —  Oregon  lies  next  north  of  California,  bordering 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  extending  to  the  Columbia  River, 
which  separates  it  from  Washington  Territory  on  the  north. 
It  extends  from  42°  to  46°  20'  north  latitude,  and  from  1 16°  30' 
to  124°  35'  west  longitude. 

Extent.  —  In  shape  it  is  an  oblong,  350  miles  long  east  and 


west,  and  275  miles  wide.     In  area  it  is  a  little  more  than  half 

as  large  as  California. 

II.    SURFACE. 

Mountains.  —  Oregon  is  a  mountainous  state.  The  Cascade 
Range  extends  north  and  south  the  entire  length  of  the  state, 
at  a  distance  of  120  miles  from  the  coast.  It  divides  the  state 
into  two  distinct  sections,  East  Oregon  and  West  Oregon. 
The  loftiest  summit  is  Mount  Hood,  a  volcanic  cone  1 1,225  f^et 
in  height. 

The  Coast  Range  is  made  up  of  numerous  broken  ridges  and 
spurs,  the  highest  of  which  do  not  exceed  an  elevation  of  4,000 
feet.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  the  most  marked  ridges 
are  known  as  the  Umpqua,  the  Rogue  River,  and  the  Cala- 
poosa  mountains. 

The  Blue  Mountains  are  in  the  northern  part  of  East  Oregon. 

Valleys.  —  The  largest  and  most  highly  cultivated  valley,  the 


36 


OREGON. 


Willamette,  lies  between  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  Coast 
Range.     It  is  140  miles  long,  and  from  10  to  40  miles  wide. 

There  are  numerous  coast  valleys  opening  towards  the  Pacific,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  those  of  Rogue  River  and  the  Umpqua  River. 

Plateaus  and  Plains.  —  East  Oregon  is  a  plateau  region  which  has  an 
elevation  of  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet.  The  south-eastern  section  is  an 
extension  of  the  Great  Basin.  This  is  largely  a  desert  region,  covered 
with  volcanic  ashes,  sand,  and  sage-brush,  and  dotted  here  and  there 
with  alkaline  lakes. 

The  scenery  along  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  state  is  remarkably  fine ;  and 
at  the  Cascades,  where  the  Columbia  breaks  through  the  mountain 
walls  of  lava  basalt,  it  is  especially  majestic  and  beautiful. 

III.    DRAINAGE. 

The  Columbia,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  the  greater  part  of 
Oregon.  It  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  for  a 
distance  of  300  miles.  It  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the 
northern  United  States  and  British  America,  and  flows  south- 
westerly into  the  Pacific.  Its  chief  branches  in  Oregon  are  the 
Willamette,  Des  Chutes,  John  Day,  Umatilla,  and  Snake. 

There  are  numerous  short  rivers  flowing  from  the  Coast  Range  directly 
into  the  ocean,  of  which  the  largest  are  Rogue  River  and  the  Umpqua. 
The  greater  part  of  the  lake  country  along  the  border  of  California  is 
drained  through  that  state  by  the  Klamath  River.  In  a  part  of  the 
central  plateau  the  rivers  terminate  in  alkaline  lakes,  either  within 
the  state,  or  in  Northern  Nevada  and  California. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

The  climate  resembles  that  of  California  in  respect  to  sea- 
sons, there  being  two  seasons,  —  the  wet  or  winter,  and  the  dry 
or  summer  season.  But  the  winters  are  colder  and  the  rainfall 
greater  than  on  the  more  southern  Pacific  coast. 

Eastern  Oregon  has  a  drier  climate  than  Western  Oregon 
because  the  Cascade  Mountains  condense  the  moisture  of  the 
rain-clouds  from  the  Pacific. 

The  climate  of  the  coast  belt  of  Oregon  and  of  the  Willamette  valley  is 
made  cooler  in  summer  and  milder  in  winter  by  the  Japan  current,  which 
flows  southward  along  the  coast  This  ciurent  is  warmer  than  the  land 
in  winter,  and  colder  in  summer,  thus  causing  the  prevailing  fogs  along 
the  coast  of  Oregon  as  well  as  of  California. 
On  the  coast  there  is  very  little  snow  or  ice ;  but  in  the  mountain  valleys 
and  in  Eastern  Oregon  there  is  considerable  snowfall,  followed  by 
heavy  rains  toward  the  end  of  the  winter  season.  The  summers  in 
the  mountains  are  warm  and  delightful. 

V.    RESOURCES. 

The  soil  of  the  Willamette  valley,  the  coast  valleys,  the 
Des  Chutes  valley,  and  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  in  Eastern 
Oregon,  is  a  rich  black  loam,  and  is  very  fertile,  yielding  in 
abundance  all  the  products  of  the  temperate  zone.  It  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  production  of  the  cereals,  root-crops,  and 
fruits.  There  are  also  large  tracts  of  natural  pasture-lands 
adapted  to  grazing  of  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  gold-mines  of  Eastern  Oregon  are  worked  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  the  Coast  Mountains  contain  valuable  coal-deposits. 
■  The  great  forest  belt  between  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  coast 
constitutes  one  of  the  chief  resources  of  the  state.  The  trees  are 
mostly  coniferous,  the  pine,  fir,  and  cedar;  being  valuable  for  lumber 
and  for  the  production  of  ship-stores,  —  tar,  turpentine,  and  rosin. 

VI.    INDUSTRIES. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry  of  the  state ;  and  the 
chief  product  is  wheat,  of  which  many  millions  of  bushels  are 
annually  exported.  The  other  important  farm-products  are 
barley,  oats,  potatoes,  garden  vegetables,  and  fruit, —  such  as 


apples,  pears,  peaches,  apricots,  plums,  and  cherries.  The 
broad  plains  of  Eastern  Oregon  afford  good  grazing-grounds 
for  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep ;  and  wool  and  live-stock  are 
largely  exported. 

In  1880,  according  to  the  report  of  the  tenth  census,  there  were  produced 
7,480,000  bushels  of  wheat,  4,385,000  bushels  of  oats,  1,359,000  bushels 
of  potatoes,  920,000  bushels  of  barley,  126,000  bushels  of  Indian-corn, 
and  orchard  products  to  the  value  of  $583,000.  The  improved  land 
in  farms  amounted  to  2,198,000  acres,  which  was  about  double  that  of 
1870,  and  was  estimated  to  be  worth  about  $57,000,000. 

Manufactures.  —  The  saw-mills  of  Oregon  produce  immense 
quantities  of  lumber.  Oregon  pine  is  shipped  to  all  parts  of 
the  western  coast  of  America,  and  even  to  more  distant  quar- 
ters of  the  globe. 

The  forests  also  furnish  material  for  ship-building,  which  is  a  large  and 
growing  industry.  The  other  important  manufactures  are  woolen  goods, 
iron-work,  carriages,  leather,  and  pine  products.  In  1880  the  capital 
invested  in  manufactures  was  over  f  6,312,000,  and  the  annual  product 
over  |lo,ooo,ooo  in  value. 

Fisheries.  —  The  salmon  fisheries  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  are  very  extensive,  and  great  quantities  of  canned 
salmon  are  exported. 

Sea-fishing  is  also  prosecuted  by  considerable  numbers.  The  total  value 
of  the  product  of  fisheries  of  Oregon  in  1880  was  over  $2,776,000.  In 
the  value  of  its  fisheries  product,  Oregon  ranked  as  the  seventh  state  in 
the  Union. 

Commerce.  —  Wheat,  lumber,  and  fish  are  the  leading  ex- 
ports. Wheat  is  shipped  direct  from  Portland  and  Astoria  to 
Liverpool  and  China.  Lumber,  masts,  and  spars  are  shipped 
to  California,  South  America,  and  the  Atlantic  States.  Other 
articles  of  export  are  wool,  hides,  and  bullion.  The  chief 
imports  are  manufactured  goods  of  all  kinds,  coffee,  tea,  and 
sugar. 

Oregon  carries  on  an  extensive  coasting  trade  with  California,  Alaska, 
British  Columbia,  and  the  ports  on  Puget  Sound.  It  has  railroad 
communication  with  California  by  means  of  the  Oregon  and  California 
Railroad,  now  nearly  completed.  It  is  connected  with  the  eastern 
states  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  which  has  its  western  termi- 
nus at  New  Tacoma,  on  Puget  Sound  in  Washington  Territory;  and 
by  the  Oregon  Branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  which  enters  the 
state  from  the  south-east. 
The  Columbia  River  system  is  navigable  for  ships  to  Portland  (on  the 
Willamette,  12  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Columbia),  112  miles 
from  the  sea.  The  main  stream  of  the  Columbia  is  also  navigable  for 
smaller  vessels  to  the  Cascades,  60  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Willa- 
mette. There  is  a  short  railroad  around  these  Cascades,  above  which 
the  river  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  the  Dalles.  Here  there  is  a 
second  railroad  around  the  rapids,  above  which  small  steamers  ascend 
the  Snake  River  to  Lewiston  in  Idaho,  —  a  distance  of  275  miles  from 
the  Dalles,  and  475  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Willamette  is  navi- 
gable for  steamers  of  considerable  size  as  far  south  as  Eugene  City 
during  a  large  part  of  the  year.  This  and  other  rivers  are  rendered 
navigable  by  means  of  locks  and  portage-railroads,  and  thus  contribute 
largely  to  the  commercial  facilities  of  the  state. 

VII.    GOVERNMENT. 

The  government  of  Oregon  is  administered  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  State  Constitution,  adopted  in  1859. 
The  officers  of  the  executive  department  of  the  state  government  are  the 
governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretarj-  of  state,  treasurer,  and  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  all  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people 
for  a  term  of  four  years. 
The  legislative  department  consists  of  a  Senate  of  thirty  members,  elected 
for  four  years,  and  a   House  of   Representatives  of  sixty  members, 
elected  for  two  vears. 


OREGON. 


37 


The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  circuit  courts,  county 

courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace. 
Oregon  is  represented  in  the  National  Congress  by  two  senators  and  one 
representative,  and  has  tliree  electoral  votes  for  President  of  the  United 
States. 

VIII.  EDUCATION. 
The  public  schools  of  Oregon  are  under  the  general  control 
of  a  State  Board  of  Education,  consisting  of  the  governor,  the 
secretary  of  state,  and  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Each  county  has  a  county  superintendent  of  schools,  and  each 
school  district  a  school  board  of  three  members. 

The  schools  of  Portland  are  noted  for  their  excellence,  and  the  country 
district  schools  are  steadily  increasing  in  excellence. 

In  addition  to  its  excellent  system  of  public  schools,  there  are  a  number 
of  superior  private  institutions  of  high  grade  in  the  state.  Among 
these  are  Pacific  University,  at  Forest  Grove ;  McMinnville  College,  at 
McMinnville ;  Willamette  University,  at  Salem ;  Blue  Mountain  Uni- 
versity, at  La  Grande ;  Ashland  College  and  Normal  School,  at  Ash- 
land ;  and  the  Bishop  Scott  Grammar  School,  at  Portland. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

The  coast  of  Oregon,  though  occasionally  visited  by  naviga- 
tors from  early  times,  did  not  attract  much  attention  until  near 
the  close  of  the  last  century.  As  early  as  the  year  1788  two 
trading  ships  from  Boston,  under  Capts.  Kendrick  and  Gray, 
visited  the  Oregon  coast.  In  1792  Capt.  Gray  discovered  the 
great  river  of  Oregon,  which  he  named  the  Columbia,  in  honor 
of  Capt.  Kendrick's  ship.  At  this  time  this  North  Pacific 
country  did  not  belong  to  any  nation. 

When  the  United  States  acquired  from  France  the  great  territory  of 
Louisiana,  in  1803,  President  Jefferson  sent  an  exploring  party,  under 
Lewis  and  Clark,  to  go  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Missouri  River,  and 
thence  advance  across  to  the  Pacific.  These  bold  explorers,  with  a 
party  of  men,  set  out  in  1804.  They  explored  to  the  very  head  of  the 
Missouri  River,  a  distance  of  three  thousand  miles,  then  crossed  to  the 
head  waters  of  the  Columbia,  and  down  that  river  to  its  mouth.  This 
was  the  first  exploration  of  this  region. 

The  report  of  this  exploration  led  John  Jacob  Astor,  a  far-seeing  merchant 
of  New  York,  to  plan  a  settlement  on  the  Oregon  coast,  with  the  view 
of  fur-trading.  Mr.  Astor  sent  out  one  party  across  the  continent,  and 
another  in  a  vessel;  and  in  181 1  a  settlement  was  made  on  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Columbia.  This  settlement  was  named  Astoria.  The 
British  became  very  jealous  of  this  American  settlement,  and  set  up  a 
claim  to  the  North  Pacific  region.  By  treachery  Astoria  was  given 
up  to  the  British  "  North-west  Fur  Company"  in  181 2. 

The  United  States  continued  to  assert  its  claim  to  the  country.  A  great 
deal  of  correspondence  on  the  subject  between  the  two  governments 
resulted.  At  last,  in  1818,  the  United  States  and  England  agreed  to  a 
joint  occupancy  of  the  whole  territory  for  ten  years.  In  1828  the  treaty 
of  joint  occupancy  was  renewed,  to  terminate  on  either  party  giving  a 
year's  notice.  Up  to  this  time,  the  number  of  Americans  in  Oregon 
was  trifling ;  and  the  first  beginnings  of  real  .settlement  were  made  in 
1834.  In  that  year  a  little  band  of  Methodist  missionaries  estabhshed 
themselves  in  the  lovely  valley  of  the  Willamette.  Here  they  were 
joined  by  others,  and  several  mission  stations  were  founded. 

No  settlement  of  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  British  and  Americans  to 
this  region  was  made  till  1846.  It  was  then  agreed  by  a  treaty  that  the 
American  possessions  should  extend  as  far  north  as  latitude  49°.  Out 
of  the  bounds  of  Oregon  were  afterwards  formed  the  state  of  Oregon 
and  the  territories  of  Washington  and  Idaho.  Oregon  was  organized 
as  a  territory  in  1848. 

The  growth  of  Oregon  was  very  slow  until  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California.  In  1850  Congress  passed  a  law  giving  lands  to  settlers  in 
Oregon.  The  country  then  began  to  fill  up.  In  1859  it  was  admitted 
as  a  state.  Since  the  completion  of  the  Pacific  railroads  its  growth 
has  been  exceedingly  rapid. 


X.    POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

Oregon  contains  twenty-three  counties  and  the  following 
leading  cities  and  towns:  — 

Portland  (17,577),  ii^  Multnomah  County,  is  the  business 
center  and  largest  city  of  Oregon.  It  is  situated  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Willamette  River,  a  little  over  twelve 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Columbia.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant railroad  center,  and  is  a  manufacturing  and  commercial 
city. 

From  its  location  at  the  foot  of  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Columbia  and  the 
Willamette,  and  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation  in  the  Columbia  River 
system,  it  enjoys  a  commanding  commercial  position  on  the  Pacific 
coast  as  the  most  important  point  between  San  Francisco  and  Puget 
Sound.  Since  the  completion  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  the 
city  has  grown  even  more  rapidly  than  before.  The  city  has  excellent 
public  schools  and  other  educational  institutions. 

Salem  (2,538),  in  Marion  County,  south  of  Portland,  53  miles 
by  rail,  is  the  capital  of  the  state.  It  has  an  extensive  water- 
power,  and  has  large  flour  and  woolen  mills.  The  Willamette 
River  affords  excellent  shipping  facilities,  and  the  city  is  a 
distributing  point  for  a  large  and  wealthy  agricultural  section. 
Other  manufactures  are  iron,  leather,  etc.  The  city  is  the  seat 
of  Willamette  University. 

Astoria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  is  a  seaport,  a  summer  resort,  and 
the  center  of  the  business  of  canning  salmon.  The  salmon  fisheries  employ 
several  thousand  men,  and  the  value  of  the  annual  product  of  salmon  exceeds 
$3,000,000.  The  facilities  for  lumbering  and  ship-building  are  also  great,  and 
are  being  largely  developed. 

Albany,  on  the  Willamette,  south  of  Salem,  has  extensive  flour-mills, 
saw-mills,  carriage-factories,  and  machine-shops.  It  has  a  large  trade  with 
the  interior,  and  by  means  of  rail  and  river  transportation  has  excellent 
shipping  facilities. 

Corvallis,  the  county  seat  of  Benton  County,  is  favorably  located  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Willamette,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Agricultural 
College. 

The  Dalles,  county  seat  of  Wasco  County,  is  situated  at  the  Upper  Cas- 
cade Rapids  of  the  Columbia,  115  miles  from  Portland.  It  has  great  advan- 
tages as  a  manufacturing  point,  and  is  the  center  of  trade  for  Eastern  Oregon. 
This  place  is  much  visited  on  account  of  the  splendid  scenery  of  the  Dalles 
of  the  Columbia. 

Eugene  City,  at  the  head  of  steamer  navigation  on  the  Willamette  River, 
is  the  seat  of  the  State  University,  and  is  the  shipping  point  for  farm-products 
for  a  large  section  of  the  Willamette  vallej-. 

Jacksonville,  county  seat  of  Jackson  County,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state,  on  the  line  of  the  Oregon  and  California  Railroad,  is  the  trade  center 
of  Southern  Oregon. 

Oregon  City,  county  seat  of  Clackamas  County,  is  situated  about  12 
miles  south  of  Portland,  on  the  Willamette.  It  has  a  valuable  water-power, 
and  contains  flouring-mills,  saw-mills,  and  the  largest  woolen-mills  in  the 
state.  The  Willamette  is  here  made  navigable  by  an  extensive  series  of 
lochs  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river. 

Roseberg,  on  the  Umpqua  River,  is  an  important  trading  town  on  the 
Oregon  and  California  Railroad. 

Baker  City,  county  seat  of  Baker  County,  is  a  growing  place  in  Eastern 
Oregon  on  the  line  of  the  Oregon  branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 
Several  prosperous  mining  districts  are  in  the  vicinity. 

East  Portland,  opposite  Portland,  on  the  Willamette,  is  a  busy  and  enter- 
prising place,  which  shares  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  its  neighboring  city. 

Among  other  places  worthy  of  special  mention,  are  Dallas,  a  manufac- 
turing town,  in  Polk  County;  Ashland,  near  the  California  line,  in  Jackson 
County;  Forest  Grove,  seat  of  the  Pacific  University,  in  Washington  County; 
Marshfield  and  Empire  City,  near  the  coast,  in  Coos  County;  McMinnville, 
a  railroad  town  and  seat  of  the  McMinnville  College,  in  Yamhill  County; 
Pendleton,  center  of  a  fine  agricultural  region,  and  county  seat  of  L'matilla 
County;  Umatilla,  a  shipping  and  trading  town  on  the  Columbia  River; 
Brownsville;  Dayton;  Halsey;  Junction  City;  Oakland;  and  Weston. 


38 


WASHINGTON. 


WASHINGTON. 


CAPE     FLATTERY. 


CUTTING     UP 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE 
MAP. 

Situation. — What  coun- 
try on  the  north  of  Wash- 
ington Territory.'  What  di- 
vision on  the  east  ?  What 
state  on  the  south  ?  What 
forms  the  western  bound- 
ary ?  What  large  river 
forms  a  large  part  of  the 
southern  boundary .'  What 

degrees  of  latitude  nearly  mark  its  limits  north  and  south  ?  What  is  the 
distance  between  these  limits  according  to  the  scale  of  miles .'  What 
degree  of  longitude  marks  its  eastern  limit?  How  many  miles  from  this 
meridian  across  the  territory  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 

Surface.  —  What  is  the  nature  of  the  surface  west  of  the  Columbia  River? 
What  east  of  this  river?  What  range  of  mountains  extends  through  the 
territory  from  north  to  south  ?  Name  and  locate  some  of  the  highest  peaks. 
What  important  valley  largely  within  this  territory  ?  What  is  the  nature  of 
the  coast? 

Lakes  and  Rivers.  —  What  large  river  crosses  this  territory  ?  Describe 
its  course.  What  are  chief  tributaries  on  the  north  ?  What  on  the  east  ? 
What  rivers  on  the  western  slope  ?  What  lake,  and  where  ?  What  other 
important  inland  waters,  and  in  what  part  ? 

Counties  and  Cities.  —  Name  the  counties  that  border  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Name  those  that  border  on  its  connected  inland  waters.  Name 
the  tier  of  counties,  north  and  south,  next  east  of  these  waters.  In  what 
portion  of  the  territory  are  the  chief  settlements  ?  Name  and  locate  the 
capital.  Name  the  more  important  cities  on  the  navigable  waters  in  the 
north.     Those  on  the  Columbia  River. 

DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  69,180  square  miles.     Population  (Census  of  1880),  75,116;  1883,  esti- 
mated, 125,000.] 

I.    SITUATION   AND   EXTENT. 

Situation.  —  Washington  Territory  lies  north  of  Oregon,  and 
borders  on  the  Pacific  on  the  west,  and  British  Columbia  on  the 
north.  It  is  included  between  45°  32'  and  49°  north  latitude, 
and  1 17°  and  124°  28'  west  longitude. 


Extent.  —  Its  length  east  and  west  is  340  miles, 
and  its  width  200  miles.  Its  area  is  thus  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  Oregon,  which  state  it  resembles 
both  in  its  general  shape  and  its  surface  features. 

II.    SURFACE. 

Washington,  like  Oregon,  is  crossed  north  and 
south  by  the  Cascade  Mountains,  which  divide  it  into 
Eastern  Washington  and  Western  Washington.  The 
highest  peaks  of  the  Cascade  Range  are  St.  Helens, 
12,000  feet,  and  Mount  Rainier  (Tacoma),  14,444, 
both  volcanic  cones,  whose  peaks  are  covered  with 

perpetual  snow,  and  whose 
upper  slopes  are  covered 
with  glaciers. 

Western  ^Vashington,  includ- 
ing about  one-third  of  the 
area  of  the  territory,  is  di- 
vided into  the  tide -water 
basin  of  the  Columbia  in  the 
south,  the  Chehalis  valley  in 
the  middle,  and  the  Puget 
Sound  basin  in  the  north. 
The  Coast  Range  extends  in 
broken  ridges  along  the  Pa- 
cific near  the  coast.  In  the 
north  these  mountains  are 
known  as  the  Olympic  Range, 
of  which  the  highest  summit 
is  Mount  Olympus,  8, 1 50  feet. 
The  western  slopes  of  these  mountains  feed  numerous  short  and  rapid 
streams  which  flow  directly  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Eastern  Washington,  which  includes  two-thirds  of  the  area  of  the  terri- 
tory, is  for  the  greater  part  a  plateau  of  moderate  elevation  traversed 
by  the  Columbia  River  and  its  tributaries.  The  surface  of  this  plateau 
consists  of  several  broad  plains  or  prairies  well  adapted  for  grazing 
and  wheat-raising,  divided  here  and  there  by  the  spurs  of  the  Cascade 
Range  and  by  many  irregular  and  abrupt  changes  of  elevation.  The 
rivers  are  broken  by  numerous  rapids,  and  the  scenery  is  varied  and 
picturesque. 
In  the  extreme  north-eastern  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the  territory  are 
found  the  broken  spurs  of  the  Pend  d'Oreille,  and  the  Blue  Mountains ; 
the  former  extending  into  the  territory  from  Idaho,  and  the  latter  from 
Oregon. 

III.  DRAINAGE. 
The  Columbia  River  drains  the  entire  eastern  part  of  the 
territory,  and  also  a  considerable  part  of  the  region  west  of 
the  Cascade  Range.  It  receives  the  water  of  a  number  of  noble 
streams  in  part  or  entirely  within  the  borders  of  the  territory. 
Among  these  are  the  Cowlitz,  Klikitat,  Yakima,  Okanagan, 
Pend  d'Oreille,  Spokan,  Snake,  and  Walla-Walla. 

The  other  drainage  systems  include  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Puget 
Sound  and  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  and  those  emptying  directly 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Some  of  these  streams,  though  short,  are  navi- 
gable to  a  considerable  distance,  and  are  of  value  in  lumbering  and 
shipping  operations.  The  Chehalis,  flowing  into  Gray's  Harbor  on  the 
coast,  is  the  most  important. 

Puget   Sound  is  a  magnificent  arm  of  the  sea,  extending  far  into  the 


WASHINGTON. 


39 


interior,  and  aiTording  great  commercial  facilities.  It  is  navigable  for 
the  largest  ship ;  and  its  network  of  deep  tide-water  channels  is  unsur- 
passed in  any  quarter  of  the  globe. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

Washington,  like  California  and  Oregon,  has  two  seasons,  — 
the  rainy  and  the  dry ;  but  the  rainfall  is  greater  than  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  dry  season  is  shorter.  Around  Paget  Sound 
the  winters  are  exceedingly  mild  for  so  high  a  latitude. 

Eastern  Washington,  on  account  of  its  position  to  the  east 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  has  a  much  lighter  rainfall  than 
Western  Washington,  and  much  colder  winters. 

The  territory,  however,  in  all  parts,  has  a  much  milder  climate  than  east- 
ern states  of  the  same  latitude ;  and  this  is  mainly  due  to  the  Japan 
current,  which  renders  the  sea  much  warmer  than  it  is  in  similar  sec- ' 
tions  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  continent.     This  action  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Gulf  Stream  on  the  western  coast  of  Europe. 

V.  RESOURCES. 

The  natural  resources  of  Washington  are  of  the  most  splen- 
did character.  The  soil  is  rich  and  productive,  easily  tilled,  and 
adapted  to  the  production  of  cereals.  Extensive  plains  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  territory  afford  fine  pasturage  for  live-stock. 
The  bays  and  rivers  abound  in  fish. 

Western  Washington  is  very  heavily  wooded,  the  forest  trees 
consisting  mainly  of  pine,  fir,  spruce,  and  cedar.  This  whole 
section  is  also  underlaid  by  the  richest  deposits  of  coal. 

The  territory  has  great  commercial  advantages.  It  is  deeply 
penetrated  by  Puget  Sound,  whose  waters  are  navigable  for 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  for  the  largest  vessels,  thus  afford- 
ing excellent  facilities  for  the  ocean  shipment  of  lumber  and 
the  products  of  the  fields  and  mines  of  the  territory. 

VI.  INDUSTRIES. 

The  industries  of  Washington  are  as  varied  as  its  resources. 
Large  numbers  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  farming  and 
lumbering.  Coal-mining  is  rapidly  developing,  the  fisheries  are 
important  and  valuable,  and  an  extensive  foreign  and  domestic 
trade  is  growing  up  with  the  completion  of  the  railroad  lines  to 
the  east. 

Agriculture.  —  Farming  is  the  leading  occupation,  and  wheat  is  the  chief 
product,  of  which  great  quantities  are  raised  for  export. 

On  the  extensive  grazing-grounds  of  Eastern  Washington  stock-raising 
is  an  important  source  of  wealth. 

In  1880  there  were  nearly  500,000  acres  of  improved  land  in  farms, 
valued  at  over  $13,844,000.  The  chief  productions  were  566,000  bush- 
els of  barley,  1,571,000  bushels  of  oats,  1,921,000  bushels  of  wheat, 
703,000  pounds  of  hops,  1,035,000  bushels  of  potatoes.  The  value  of 
live-stock  was  $4,852,000,  and  the  total  farm  product  was  valued  at 
14,212,000. 

Lumbering.  —  In  the  Puget  Sound  basin  the  cutting,  sawing,  and  ship- 
ping of  lumber  is  a  leading  pursuit.  Ship-building  is  also  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  spars  are  shipped  to  the  Atlantic 
coast. 

Mining.  —  Gold-mines  are  worked  to  some  extent  in  the  mountain  sec- 
tions, but  the  mineral  wealth  consists  chiefly  in  extensive  coal  deposits 
in  the  Puget  Sound  basin.  The  best  known  coal-mines  are  those  of 
Bellingham  Bay,  Seattle,  Renton,  Newcastle,  and  Carbon  Hill. 

Fisheries.  —  On  the  Columbia  River  there  are  extensive  salmon  can- 
neries. The  fisheries  on  the  coast  are  also  of  considerable  value.  In 
1880  the  value  of  the  seal  fisheries  product  was  over  $61,000. 

Manufacturing.  —  The  manufactures  of  Washington  are  in  their  infancy. 
They  consist  principally  of  lumber,  flour,  machinery,  iron-work,  and 
ship  stores. 


Commerce.  —  It  is  connected  with  the  east  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
road, and  by  branch  lines  with  Oregon  and  California.  This  great  line 
of  railway,  the  shortest  of  the  transcontinental  lines,  is  already  exer- 
cising a  great  influence  on  the  development  of  the  territory.  It  is 
opening  up  new  routes  of  travel,  and  bringing  together  distant  parts, 
thus  cementing  the  bonds  of  the  future  great  commonwealth  of  the 
North-west.  It  is  also  utilizing  the  magnificent  harbors  of  the  Puget 
Sound,  and  bringing  forward  the  exhaustless  stores  of  wealth  that  have 
been  locked  up  in  the  mines  and  forests  of  the  territory. 

The  Columbia  River  is  navigable  throughout  the  territory  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  rapids,  affording  good  facilities  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  wheat. 

The  chief  exports  of  Washington  are  wheat,  lumber,  coal,  wool,  live- 
stock, and  fish.     The  imports  are  all  kinds  of  manufactured  articles. 

VII.    EDUCATION. 

Washington  has  laid  the  foundation  for  a  good  system  of 
public  schools.  The  schools  are  under  the  general  control  of  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  council  for  a  term  of  two  years,  and  of  county  superin- 
tendents of  schools,  elected  by  the  people.  Each  school  district 
has  a  local  board  of  three  school  directors.  The  Territorial 
University  is  established  at  Seattle. 

VIII.    GOVERNMENT. 

Washington  has  a  territorial  form  of  government,  subject  to 
the  provisions  of  the  United  States  statutes. 

The  executive  officers  consist  of  the  governor  and  the  secretary,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate,  for  a  term  of  four  years. 

The  Legislature  consists  of  the  Council,  of  nine  members,  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  of  thirty  members,  elected  by  the  people. ' 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  the  Supreme  Court,  the  judges  of  which 
are  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  a 
term  of  four  years ;  in  district  courts,  county  probate  courts,  and  jus- 
tices' courts,  the  judges  of  which  are  elected  by  the  people. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

When  the  Territory  of  Washington  was  organized,  in  1853,  it 
included  all  of  the  present  area,  and  also  Idaho  and  considerable 
parts  of  Montana  and  Wyoming. 

In  1863  the  territory  was  reduced  to  its  present  limits  upon 
the  organization  of  the  territories  to  the  east  of  Washington. 
The  settlement  of  the  boundary  disputes  with  Great  Britain, 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  California,  and  the  completion  of  the 
Pacific  Railroad,  have  been  the  main  causes  of  the  growth  of 
the  territory. 

The  north-west  boundary  had  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute  with  Great 
Britain,  and  was  finally  settled  as  to  the  mainland  in  1846.  From  that 
time  the  only  question  unsettled  was  the  true  boundary  line  through 
the  channel  of  the  Strait  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca.  This  resulted  in  the 
joint  occupancy  of  the  San  Juan  Islands,  ten  in  number,  by  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  In  the  year  1872  these  islands  were  decided 
to  belong  to  the  United  States  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  to  whom 
the  question  was  submitted  for  arbitration,  and  they  thus  came  under 
the  exclusive  control  of  the  territory. 

X.    POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

Washington  Territory  comprises  twenty-six  counties  and  the 
following  leading  cities  and  towns  :  — 

Olympia,  capital  of  the  territory,  and  county  seat  of  Thurs- 
ton County,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Puget  Sound.  It  is 
connected  by  a  branch  road  with  the  main  line  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad,  and  has  most  excellent  facilities  for  commerce 


40 


WASHINGTON. 


and  general  trade.  Its  harbor  is  safe  and  commodious,  and  is 
especially  adapted  for  the  lumber  trade  and  for  ship-building. 

Seattle,  county  seat  of  King  County,  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  Puget  Sound,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dawamish 
River.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  financial  and  business  centers 
of  the  territory,  and  has  great  commercial  advantages.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  rich  coal  and  lumber  region,  which  is  being 
rapidly  developed.  The  principal  manufactures  are  iron  and 
lumber.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Washington  Terri- 
tory. 

Tacoma,  in  Pierce  County,  about  midway  between  Seattle 
and  Olympia,  on  Puget  Sound,  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  is 
largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture  and  shipping  of  lumber. 
Here  are  located  the  extensive  machine-shops  of  the  western 
division  of  the  railroad,  and  its  business  is  being  largely  ex- 
tended since  the  completion  of  the  road  to  the  east. 

Walla-Walla  (by  the  census  of  1880,  the  most  populous  town  in  the 
territory)  is  situated  in  the  south-eastern  part  in  the  rich  and  fertile  Walla- 
Walla  valley.  It  is  connected  by  railroad  with  the  Columbia  River  at 
Wallula,  and  is  extensively  engaged  in  trade  and  the  shipment  of  wheat, 
wool,  etc. 

Vancouver,  county  seat  of  Clarke  County,  is  situated  on  the  Columbia, 


100  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  settled  points  in  the  terri- 
tory, and  has  considerable  trade  and  shipping. 

Spokan,  on  the  Spokan  River  and  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  has  an 
extensive  water-power,  which  is  being  considerably  developed. 

Whatcom,  on  Bellingham  Bay,  is  a  shipping  point  for  coal  and  lumber. 

Colfax,  county  seat  of  Whitman  County,  is  a  growing  town  in  the  center 
of  a  fine  agricultural  district. 

Tumwater,  closely  connected  with  Olympia  in  its  business  and  manufac- 
turing interests,  has  immense  water-power,  which  is  utilized  in  manufacture 
of  lumber,  flour,  etc. 

Cascades,  at  the  head  of  the  lower  rapids  of  the  Columbia,  is  largely 
engaged  in  trans-shipment  of  the  commerce  of  that  river.  A  ship  canal  is 
being  built  at  this  point. 

Wallula,  on  the  upper  Columbia,  is  the  terminus  of  a  railroad  into  the 
fertile  Walla- Walla  valley. 

Oysterville  is  the  most  important  town  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  is  largely 
engaged  in  the  taking  of  sea-fish. 

Port  Townsend,  county  seat  of  Island  County,  is  the  chief  port  of  entry 
for  the  entire  Puget  Sound  region,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  military 
division  of  the  Columbia. 

Ainsworth,  in  Whitman  County,  is  a  growing  commercial  town  on  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  the  terminus  of  an  important  branch  of  that 
line. 

Wilkeson  and  Carbonado  are  growing  railroad  towns  in  King  County. 

Other  important  places  are  Dayton,  in  Columbia  County;  Steilacoom,  in 
Pierce  County;  Blakely,  in  Kitsap  County;  San  Juan,  in  San  Juan  County; 
Yakima,  in  Yakima  County ;  and  Port  Gamble,  in  Kitsap  County. 


ALASKA. 


41 


ALASKA. 


A  BOULOin  I. 

AllG»Tru  K 


^"^A     d     I      F    I\     C 


Lou^tude 


'^Va^liugtolt 


QUESTIONS   ON   THE   MAP. 

Situation.  —  In  what  part  of  North  America  is  Alaska?  What  bounds 
it  on  the  north  ?  What  on  the  east.'  What  waters  form  its  southern  and 
western  boundaries?  What  parallel  marks  its  most  northern  limit?  Its 
most  southern  limit? 

Surface.  —  What  important  continental  range  of  mountains  terminates  in 
Southern  Alaska?  What  jjeninsula  and  islands  indicate  its  course?  What 
mountains  to  the  north  of  this?  What  important  mountain  peaks,  and 
where  are  they  located?  Which  is  the  highest?  What  is  the  nature  of  the 
southern  coast  of  Alaska  ?     Of  the  western  coast  ? 

Rivers,  Lakes,  and  Towns —  What  is  the  principal  river  of  Alaska  ?  De- 
scribe its  course.  In  what  general  direction  do  most  of  the  streams  flow? 
Has  it  many  lakes?  What  is  their  size,  and  where  are  they  mostly  located? 
Name  the  largest  one.     Name  and  locate  tlie  capital. 


DESCRIPTION. 

[Area,  531,409  square  miles.     Population  {Census  of  1880).  33,426] 

I.   SITUATION  AND  EXTENT. 

Situation.  —  Alaska,  which  includes  the  extreme  northern 
and  western  parts  of  our  continent,  is  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  United  States  by  British  Columbia.  Its  area 
is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the  original  thirteen 
states. 

The  mainland  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Portland  Canal.  54°  40' 
north  latitude,  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  71°  23'  north  latitude, 
and  lies  between  the  meridians  of  130°  and  167°  west  longitude.     The 


42 


ALASKA. 


Island  of  Attoo,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleutian  group,  which  is  in- 
cluded in  Alaska,  is  situated  in  173°  east  longitude.  This  island  is  as 
many  degrees  west  of  San  Francisco  as  that  city  is  west  of  Maine. 

Extent.  —  Alaska  is  1,100  miles  in  length  north  and  south, 
and  800  miles  in  width.  Its  area  is  nearly  four  times  that  of 
California. 

In  consequence  of  the  numerous  bays,  inlets,  and  fiords  that  indent  its 
shores,  together  with  its  long  chain  of  islands  stretching  across  the 
Pacific  almost  to  Asia,  Alaska  has  a  coast  line  of  not  less  than  20,000 
miles. 

Its  most  northerly  point  is  Cape  Barrow ;  and  the  most  westerly  point  of 
the  mainland  is  Cape  Prince  of  Wales. 

II.    SURFACE. 

Mountains.  —  A  great  mountain-chain  called  the  Coast  Range 
exteiuls  along  the  Pacific  from  British  Columbia  to  the  penin- 
sula of  Alaska.  The  Alaskan  portion  is  from  50  to  75  miles 
wide,  and  many  of  its  summits  rise  to  a  great  height.  Mount 
St.  Klias,  estimated  to  exceed  19,000  feet,  is  the  loftiest  peak 
in  North  America.  Mount  Fairweather  exceeds  16,000  feet, 
and  numerous  other  mountains  exceed  12,000  feet  in  height. 

The  slopes  of  this  mighty  range  are  covered  with  thousands  of  glaciers, 
that  push  their  slow-moving  masses  down  to  the  bays  and  fiords  that 
indent  the  coast.  Some  of  these  glaciers  are  40  miles  long,  and  from 
10  to  15  miles  wide.  The  glacial  scenery  of  this  region  is  by  far  the 
grandest  in  the  world.  The  long  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  stretch- 
ing out  into  the  Pacific  almost  to  Asia  is  a  continuation  of  this  chain  of 
mountains,  though  the  island  peaks  seldom  exceed  a  height  of  5,000 
feet. 

The  interior  of  Alaska  has  been  but  little  explored.  It  consists  of  rolling 
grassy  plains,  and  mountains  covered  with  scattered  groves  of  pine  and 
spruce. 

III.    DRAINAGE. 

The  Yukon,  the  chief  river  of  Alaska,  is  one  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  globe. 

It  rises  in  British  Columbia,  and  flows  into  the  Pacific.  It  is  navigable 
for  steamers  for  2,000  miles,  and  is  a  mile  wide  at  a  distance  of  600 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  only  large  river  of  Alaska  that  flows  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean  is  the  Colville. 

IV.    CLIMATE. 

Two  thirds  of  Alaska  is  in  the  north  temperate  zone,  and 
one  third  in  the  Arctic  zone. 

Owing  to  the  infiuence  of  the  warm  Japan  current,  sometimes  called  the 
(iulf  Stream  of  the  Pacific,  that  bathes  the  western  shores  of  Alaska, 


the  climate  of  the  coast  belt  and  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  is  temperate. 

The  rainfall  of  this  region  is  very  heavy,  owing  to  the  condensation. 

by  the  mountains,  of  the  warm  rain-winds  which  come,  heated  and 

vapor-laden,  from  the  Japan  current. 
At  Sitka,  and  southward  along  the  coast,  and  westward  throughout  the 

Aleutian  chain  of  islands,  it  rains  or  snows  two  days  out  of  three  during 

the  entire  year. 
East  of  the  Coast  Range,  and  on  the  vast  plains  that  border  on  the  Arctic 

Ocean,  the  cold  in  winter  is  intense,  the  thermometer  falling  to  70° 

below  zero. 
At  Sitka,  during  the  longest  days  of  summer,  there  is  no  darkness  at 

midnight.     The  sun  just  dips  below  the  horizon,  and  then  rises  again. 

V.    RESOURCES  AND   INDUSTRIES. 

The  resources  of  Alaska  consist  chiefly  of  the  fish  which 
swarm  in  its  innumerable  bays,  fiords,  and  rivers ;  of  the  furs 
of  its  wild  animals  ;  and  of  its  forests  and  minerals. 

Fisheries.  —  Salmon  abound  in  all  the  streams  of  Alaska;  and  extensive 
canneries  are  already  established  on  the  Yukon  River,  the  Chilcat,  and 
among  the  islands  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago. 

The  cod  fisheries  off  the  coast  are  carried  on  b}-  a  considerable  number  of 
vessels  from  San  Francisco. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  is  the  resort  of  many  whaling-vessels,  which  push  their 
v/ay  in  the  summer  months  into  these  dangerous  seas  in  pursuit  of 
whales. 

Furs.  —  The  principal  fur-bearing  animals  are  the  seal,  sea-otter,  fox. 
ermine,  marten,  and  beaver.  The  most  valuable  of  these  is  the  fur- 
seal,  which  is  found  in  vast  numbers  on  the  two  small  islands  of 
St.  Paul  and  St.  George.  These  two  islands  are  leased  by  the  United 
States  Government  to  the  Alaska  Fur  Company.  The  annual  product 
of  the  seal  fisheries,  as  reported  in  the  census  of  r88o,  is  valued  at 
nearly  $2,100,000;  and  of  other  fisheries,  over  $500,000. 

Forests.  —  The  timber  lands  of  Alaska  are  limited  chiefly  to  the  coast 
belt  of  South-western  Alaska.  The  trees  most  valuable  for  lumber  are 
the  yellow  cedar,  and  the  spruce  or  Sitka  pine. 

Minerals.  —  (^old  has  recently  been  discovered  on  the  tributaries  of  the 
Yukon,  but  the  mines  have  not  as  yet  been  extensively  worked. 

Vegetation.  —  The  agricultural  re.sources  of  Alaska  are  limited.  Potatoes 
and  vegetables  can  be  grown  along  the  western  coast  and  on  the  islands, 
but  the  cereals  will  not  ripen. 

VI.    GOVERNMENT. 

No  territorial  government  has  yet  been  organized  in  Alaska. 
This  territory  was  purchased  from  Russia  in  1867  for  ^7,200,000. 
The  population  of  the  entire  territory  consists  of  a  few  hundred 
whites  and  about  33,000  natives. 

Sitka  is  a  port  of  entry  in  charge  of  a  United  States  rev- 
enue officer. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION  -  PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


7  DAY  USE  DURING 


SUMMER  SESSIONS 


FEB  1  0  1967 


MAR     7  1967 


MAR  4    REC'D  -10  A 


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PEC  19  ^^84 


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Berkeley 


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